Innovative methods
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Innovative methods 2 CONTENT 7 Step Model ....................................................................................................................... 9 Plan ............................................................................................................................. 9 Do ................................................................................................................................ 9 Check ........................................................................................................................ 10 Act ............................................................................................................................. 10 AIDA................................................................................................................................. 11 Advantages, Limitations and Unique Qualities ................................................................ 12 ARIZ ................................................................................................................................. 13 Algorithm of Inventive Problem Solving ......................................................................... 13 Framework for ARIZ .................................................................................................... 13 External links ................................................................................................................ 14 Alternative Scenarios ........................................................................................................ 15 References ..................................................................................................................... 17 Analogies .......................................................................................................................... 18 Anonymous Voting ........................................................................................................... 20 Assumption Busting .......................................................................................................... 21 Assumption Surfacing ....................................................................................................... 22 Attribute Listing ................................................................................................................ 23 References ..................................................................................................................... 24 Backwards Forwards Planning ......................................................................................... 25 Boundary Examination ..................................................................................................... 27 Boundary Relaxation ........................................................................................................ 28 Identifying the boundary ............................................................................................... 28 Relaxing the boundaries ................................................................................................ 29 BrainSketching .................................................................................................................. 30 Brainstorming ................................................................................................................... 31 Brainwriting ...................................................................................................................... 32 Contents ........................................................................................................................ 32 BrainWriting Pool ......................................................................................................... 32 BrainWriting 6-3-5........................................................................................................ 32 Idea Card Method ......................................................................................................... 33 BrainWriting Game ....................................................................................................... 33 Constrained BrainWriting ............................................................................................. 34 Varying the level of constraint ...................................................................................... 34 Browsing ........................................................................................................................... 35 Types of browsing..................................................................................................... 35 Factors that may support creative browsing ............................................................. 35 Brutethink ......................................................................................................................... 36 Bug Listing........................................................................................................................ 37 BulletProofing ................................................................................................................... 38 Bunches of Bananas .......................................................................................................... 39 CATWOE ......................................................................................................................... 40 References ..................................................................................................................... 40 Card Story Boards ............................................................................................................. 41 3 Cartoon Story Board ......................................................................................................... 43 Causal Mapping ................................................................................................................ 45 Charette ............................................................................................................................. 46 Cherry Split ....................................................................................................................... 47 Chunking ........................................................................................................................... 48 Chunking Up (becoming more general) ................................................................... 48 Chunking Down (becoming more specific) .............................................................. 48 When to use Chunking. ............................................................................................. 49 Circle of Opportunity ........................................................................................................ 50 Clarification ...................................................................................................................... 51 Classic Brainstorming ....................................................................................................... 53 Collective Notebook ......................................................................................................... 54 Haefele’s Original Version ........................................................................................... 54 Pearson’s Variant .......................................................................................................... 54 Comparison tables ............................................................................................................. 56 Component Detailing ........................................................................................................ 58 Concept Fan ...................................................................................................................... 59 Consensus Mapping .......................................................................................................... 60 Constrained BrainWriting ................................................................................................. 62 Constrained BrainWriting ............................................................................................. 62 Contradiction Analysis...................................................................................................... 63 Controlling Imagery .......................................................................................................... 64 Contents ........................................................................................................................ 64 Developing Your Skill in Changing Your Imagery, approach this by making the change in stages: ........................................................................................................... 64 Tackling a Frightening Image in Stages ....................................................................... 64 Ways of Stopping Compulsive Trains of Unwanted Images ........................................ 65 Ways of Dissipating Fearful Images ............................................................................. 65 Crawford Slip Writing ...................................................................................................... 67 Creative Problem Solving - CPS....................................................................................... 69 Criteria for idea-finding potential ..................................................................................... 71 Critical Path Diagrams ...................................................................................................... 72 DO IT ................................................................................................................................ 74 Contents ........................................................................................................................ 74 Define Problem ......................................................................................................... 74 Open Mind and Apply Creative Technique .............................................................. 74 Identify the Best Solution ......................................................................................... 75 Transform .................................................................................................................. 75 Decision seminar ............................................................................................................... 76 Delphi ................................................................................................................................ 78 Dialectical Approaches ..................................................................................................... 80 The Devil’s Advocate ............................................................................................... 80 Dialectical Inquiry .................................................................................................... 80 Dimensional Analysis ....................................................................................................... 82 Contents ........................................................................................................................ 82 Substantive Dimension (‘What?’)............................................................................. 82 4 Spatial Dimension (‘Where?’) .................................................................................. 82 Temporal (‘When?’) ................................................................................................. 82 Quantitative (‘How much?’) ..................................................................................... 82 Qualitative (‘How serious?’)..................................................................................... 83 Disney Creativity Strategy ................................................................................................ 84 Do Nothing........................................................................................................................ 85 Drawing............................................................................................................................. 86 Drawing to Evoke Personal Insights ......................................................................... 86 Using Drawings to Establish an Evocative Theme for a Meeting ............................ 86 Recording Ideas on ‘Rich Pictures’ .......................................................................... 86 Escape Thinking................................................................................................................ 87 Essay Writing .................................................................................................................... 89 References ..................................................................................................................... 89 Estimate-Discuss-Estimate ............................................................................................... 90 Exaggeration ..................................................................................................................... 91 Excursions ......................................................................................................................... 93 Contents ........................................................................................................................ 93 General Guidelines.................................................................................................... 93 Excursion worlds ...................................................................................................... 93 Story Excursions ....................................................................................................... 94 Physical excursions ................................................................................................... 94 Outside excursions .................................................................................................... 94 Description excursions .............................................................................................. 94 F-R-E-E-Writing ............................................................................................................... 95 Factors in selling ideas ...................................................................................................... 99 The Selling Context: ................................................................................................. 99 The Selling Content: ................................................................................................. 99 False Faces ...................................................................................................................... 100 Fishbone Diagram ........................................................................................................... 101 Five Ws and H ................................................................................................................ 103 Flow charts ...................................................................................................................... 105 Focus Groups .................................................................................................................. 106 Focusing .......................................................................................................................... 107 Force-Field Analysis ....................................................................................................... 109 Force-Fit Game ............................................................................................................... 110 Free Association.............................................................................................................. 111 F-R-E-E-Writing ............................................................................................................. 113 Fresh eye ......................................................................................................................... 117 Basic Model ............................................................................................................ 117 Face-to-face Networking Model ............................................................................. 117 Gallery method................................................................................................................ 118 Gap Analysis ................................................................................................................... 119 Goal Orientation.............................................................................................................. 120 Greetings Cards ............................................................................................................... 121 Developing the environment ................................................................................... 121 Using it in problem-solving .................................................................................... 121 5 Help-Hinder .................................................................................................................... 122 Heuristic Ideation Technique .......................................................................................... 123 Hexagon Modelling ........................................................................................................ 125 External links .............................................................................................................. 125 Commercial Hexagon Modelling Software ............................................................ 125 Highlighting .................................................................................................................... 126 Idea Advocate ................................................................................................................. 127 Idea Box .......................................................................................................................... 128 Ideal Final Result ............................................................................................................ 129 References ................................................................................................................... 129 Imagery Manipulation ..................................................................................................... 130 Imagery for Answering Questions .................................................................................. 132 Script ....................................................................................................................... 132 Imaginary Brainstorming ................................................................................................ 134 Implementation Checklists.............................................................................................. 135 Implementation Checklist 1 ( VanGundy, 1988) .................................................... 135 Implementation checklist 2 (Isaken, Dorval and Treffinger, 1994)........................ 135 Improved Nominal Group Technique ............................................................................. 137 Advance Preparation ............................................................................................... 137 The Meeting ............................................................................................................ 137 Interpretive structural modeling ...................................................................................... 138 KJ-Method ...................................................................................................................... 139 Keeping a Dream Diary .................................................................................................. 141 Kepner and Tregoe method ............................................................................................. 142 Problem Analysis .................................................................................................... 142 Decision-Making..................................................................................................... 142 Laddering ........................................................................................................................ 144 Lateral Thinking.............................................................................................................. 146 Listing ............................................................................................................................. 147 Listing Pros and Cons ..................................................................................................... 148 Metaplan Information Market ......................................................................................... 149 Mind Mapping ................................................................................................................ 150 Morphological Analysis .................................................................................................. 153 Contents ...................................................................................................................... 153 Identifying Suitable Dimensions and Options ............................................................ 153 Computer Aided Morphological Analysis .................................................................. 154 References ................................................................................................................... 154 External links .............................................................................................................. 154 Morphological Forced Connections ................................................................................ 156 Multiple Redefinition ...................................................................................................... 157 NAF................................................................................................................................. 158 NLP ................................................................................................................................. 159 References ................................................................................................................... 160 Negative Brainstorming .................................................................................................. 162 References ................................................................................................................... 162 Nominal Group Technique ............................................................................................. 163 6 Contents ...................................................................................................................... 163 Underlying Principles ............................................................................................. 163 Standard Procedure ................................................................................................. 163 Adaptation for ill-structured problems.................................................................... 164 Adaptation for greater anonymity ........................................................................... 164 Nominal-Interacting Technique ...................................................................................... 165 Notebook ......................................................................................................................... 166 Observer and Merged Viewpoints .................................................................................. 167 Osborn's Checklist .......................................................................................................... 168 The Checklist: ......................................................................................................... 168 Other Peoples Definitions ............................................................................................... 169 Other Peoples Viewpoints............................................................................................... 170 PDCA .............................................................................................................................. 171 PIPS................................................................................................................................. 172 PMI ................................................................................................................................. 174 Plus, Minus, Interesting - PMI ................................................................................ 174 Paired Comparison .......................................................................................................... 175 Panel Consensus.............................................................................................................. 177 Paraphrasing Key Words ................................................................................................ 179 Replacing Key words with Synonyms .................................................................... 179 Use Synonym Pairs to Trigger Ideas ...................................................................... 179 Personal Balance Sheet ................................................................................................... 181 From Mycoted ......................................................................................................... 181 References ................................................................................................................... 181 Pictures as Idea Triggers ................................................................................................. 182 Pin Cards ......................................................................................................................... 183 Plusses Potentials and Concerns ..................................................................................... 184 References ................................................................................................................... 184 Potential Problem Analysis ............................................................................................. 185 Preliminary Questions ..................................................................................................... 187 Problem Centred Leadership........................................................................................... 189 Problem Inventory Analysis - PIA .................................................................................. 192 Problem Reversal ............................................................................................................ 193 The Method ............................................................................................................. 193 Productive Thinking Model ............................................................................................ 195 Contents ...................................................................................................................... 195 Uses ............................................................................................................................. 195 The process ................................................................................................................. 195 Further reading ............................................................................................................ 197 Progressive Hurdles ........................................................................................................ 198 Progressive Revelation.................................................................................................... 200 Example - A problem about car parking might be presented as follows: ............... 200 Issues to take into consideration ............................................................................. 200 Provocation ..................................................................................................................... 202 Q-Sort .............................................................................................................................. 203 Example .................................................................................................................. 203 7 Quality Circles ................................................................................................................ 204 Random Stimuli .............................................................................................................. 205 Some variants to try: ............................................................................................... 205 Rawlinson Brainstorming ............................................................................................... 207 Receptivity to Ideas......................................................................................................... 208 Paraphrasing ............................................................................................................ 208 Developmental Response ........................................................................................ 208 Reframing Values ........................................................................................................... 210 The following Zen story (adapted from Vaughan, 1979) demonstrates this theory succinctly: ............................................................................................................... 210 Relational Words ............................................................................................................ 211 Relaxation ....................................................................................................................... 212 Script ....................................................................................................................... 212 Reversals ......................................................................................................................... 214 The 3 ways you can use reversals: .......................................................................... 214 RoleStorming .................................................................................................................. 216 SCAMMPERR................................................................................................................ 217 SCAMPER ...................................................................................................................... 218 Example .................................................................................................................. 218 SDI .................................................................................................................................. 219 SODA.............................................................................................................................. 221 SWOT Analysis .............................................................................................................. 222 External Links ............................................................................................................. 222 Sculptures ........................................................................................................................ 223 Search Conference .......................................................................................................... 225 Sequential-Attributes Matrix .......................................................................................... 226 Similarities and Differences ............................................................................................ 228 Simple Rating Methods................................................................................................... 230 Simple/Hard/Difficult (Moore, 1962) ..................................................................... 230 v?W ......................................................................................................................... 230 Simplex ........................................................................................................................... 231 Six Thinking Hats ........................................................................................................... 234 Slice and Dice ................................................................................................................. 237 Snowball Technique........................................................................................................ 238 Soft Systems Method ...................................................................................................... 239 References ................................................................................................................... 239 Stakeholder Analysis ...................................................................................................... 240 Sticking Dots ................................................................................................................... 241 Stimulus Analysis ........................................................................................................... 242 Story Writing .................................................................................................................. 243 Strategic Assumption Testing ......................................................................................... 245 Strategic Choice Approach ............................................................................................. 246 Strategic Management Process ....................................................................................... 247 Successive Element Integration ...................................................................................... 248 SuperGroup ..................................................................................................................... 249 SuperHeroes .................................................................................................................... 250 8 Synectics ......................................................................................................................... 252 Systematic Inventive Thinking ....................................................................................... 254 External links .............................................................................................................. 254 TILMAG ......................................................................................................................... 255 Contents ...................................................................................................................... 255 Overview ................................................................................................................. 255 More detailed explanation....................................................................................... 255 TRIZ................................................................................................................................ 258 External links .............................................................................................................. 259 Commercial TRIZ software .................................................................................... 260 Talking Pictures .............................................................................................................. 261 Technology Monitoring .................................................................................................. 262 Think Tank ...................................................................................................................... 263 Thril - Three Fold Repetition of Initial Letter ........................................................ 263 Transactional Planning.................................................................................................... 265 Trigger Method ............................................................................................................... 266 Trigger Sessions .............................................................................................................. 267 Tug of War ...................................................................................................................... 268 Using Crazy Ideas ........................................................................................................... 269 Using Experts .................................................................................................................. 270 Value Brainstorming ....................................................................................................... 271 Value Engineering .......................................................................................................... 272 Visual Brainstorming ...................................................................................................... 273 Visualising a Goal ........................................................................................................... 274 Who Are You .................................................................................................................. 275 Why Why Why ............................................................................................................... 277 Why? etc. - repeatable questions ............................................................................ 277 Wishing ........................................................................................................................... 279 Working with Dreams and Images ................................................................................. 280 9 7 Step Model From Mycoted This is a modified version of PDCA Contents 1 Plan 2 Do 3 Check 4 Act Plan The problem is that you must take a risk and convert your cash money in property of some production factors if you like look for something to make plusvalues for your own. Currently when you by an object in order to purchase a plusvalues the biggest problem is that you must put in your cash and keep a risk. This cash cannot serve your savings needs. This cash cannot serve your consumation needs. But if you want to make plusvalues can you do it in a cash phasis (cashkeeping) and risk free ? Identify and verify the root causes Construct a cause & effect diagram, review and identify the root cause. Yes, you can, but we must enlarge the Classical Economy. Here we will see the concep of a new action over the money, it means _to datevalue it, like if you spend it, like if you save it or like if you invest it. And as this datevaluation action produces plusvalues, the process is the first substitute of the investment. It must be one solution to the John-Maynard Keynes question to resolve crisis's causes. Develop a solution and action plan Generate potential solutions, rank these and then generate the tasks to deliver the solution.Construct a details plan Do Implement the solution Communicate the plan and review the plan regularly amongst all concerned. 10 Check Review and Evaluate Use the performance measures identified in step 2 to review and evaluate the results of the change Act Reflect and act on what you have learnt Assess the problem solving process to obtain lessons learnt.Continue the improvement process where needed. 11 AIDA From Mycoted AIDA (Analysis of Interactive Decision Areas - Luckman, Operational Research Quarterly, 1967; Friend and Hickling, Planning Under Pressure: The Strategic Choice Approach by John Friend and Allen Hickling, 1987) is used when you have several interconnected problems where the solution choices for one will affect the solution choices for another. You therefore need to evaluate the solutions as a group, but the number of theoretically possible group combinations may be large. AIDA identifies combinations that cannot coexist and can therefore be eliminated, hence substantially reducing the number of combinations you need to compare. Assuming that you have already got a list of problems, and have identified possible solutions for each. Then: 1. Identify any problems that do not interact: Draw a matrix with the problem names on each axis (e.g. 5 problems need a 5x5 matrix); delete the diagonal and the bottom triangle, to leave one cell for each different problem pair. Mark each cell 'X' if any of the solutions in the pair of problems the cell represents cannot coexist. Remove from AIDA any problems with a blank row in this matrix; these have no interactions, and you can work with them independently. P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P1 x P2 P3 P4 P4 x x x x 1. Identify incompatible pairs of solutions: Write each remaining problem with its solutions, on a large Post-it slip (e.g. 4 problems give four slips). Stick them on a large working area (e.g. a white-board). Go through each solution on each slip, checking it against every solution on all the other slips to identify any pairs of solutions that cannot coexist. Draw a 'bar-line' linking the two members of each such incompatible pair of solutions. Then all solutions in different problems that are not barred are free to be combined. 2. Create a solution tree: Create a tree-diagram that displays all compatible combinations of solution options. Remove any incompatible branches. The remaining solutions can now be compared against agreed criteria like any other set of solutions. 12 Advantages, Limitations and Unique Qualities From Mycoted This is a relatively straightforward idea evaluation technique, although it can be used in idea generation. 1. Select one of the ideas / possible solutions. 2. Brainstorm as many advantages of this as you can 3. Once you have got to a limit oon advantages, try and Brainstorm all the dissadvantages 4. Swap mindset again, to try and find all the unique, new or unusual qualities about this idea / solution. See also Plusses Potentials and Concerns and Receptivity to Ideas 13 ARIZ Algorithm of Inventive Problem Solving From Mycoted ARIZ (russ. acronym of Алгоритм решения изобретательских задач) - Algorithm of Inventive Problems Solving (ARIZ) is list of (about 85) step-by-step procedures that incrementally evolves a complex problem to a point where it is simple to solve. Complex problems cannot be solved in just two steps. For those problems which are so complex, that they cannot be solved with any other tools, TRIZ includes the algorithm to follow which will facilitate the problem-solving process. ARIZ is not an equation, but rather a multi-step process asking you a series of questions that integrates different pieces of TRIZ. ARIZ is a very "solution neutral" process: i.e., it takes preconceived solutions out of the problem statement. It starts you at a position that assumes the nature of your problem is unknown. ARIZ reacquaints you with your problem by allowing you to see your problem with a fresh pair of eyes. ARIZ features: is a process of problem reformulations is logical and disciplined continually reinterprets the problem is the main TRIZ method for solving conflicts ARIZ utilizes: Ideality for an understanding of the Ideal Final Result (IFR) (or Ideal Solution) to the problem Contradictions, by working first with the technical contradiction, then the physical contradiction Resources of the system Scientific effects S-field modeling and Standard Solutions the 40 Principles It is important to note that ARIZ is more than 50% problem reformulation! It is only through this guided reformulation that complex problems can be solved. Framework for ARIZ 14 There are the nine classic steps (and the number of sub-steps vary from version to version of ARIZ). The three macro level processes with their respective nine "Classic" parts are: I. Restructuring of the Original Problem 1. Analyze the System 2. Analyze the Resources 3. Define the Ideal Final Result and Formulate the Physical Contradiction II. Removing the Physical Contradiction 1. Separate the Physical Contradiction 2. Apply the Knowledge Base: Effects, Standards, and Principles 3. Change the "Mini-Problem" III. Analyzing the Solution 1. Review the Solution and Analyze the Removal of the Physical Contradiction 2. Develop Maximum Usage of the Solution 3. Review All the Stages in ARIZ in "Real Time" Application ARIZ is used to solve very complicated invention problems, where other tools of TRIZ (Su-field analysis, 40 inventive principles, etc.) are not aplicable. External links ARIZ (An Americanized Learning Framework) By Janice Marconi, Marconi Works, International http://www.triz-journal.com/archives/1998/04/d/ ARIZ on the Move. Boris Zlotin and Alla Zusman http://www.triz-journal.com/archives/1999/03/e/ Thoughts on ARIZ - Do we need to redesign the ARIZ 2000? By: Pentti Soderlin PDF version (23 KB) http://www.triz-journal.com/archives/2003/04/d/04.pdf Combination of ARIZ92 and NM (Nakayama, Masakazu) Method for the 5-th level problems. By: Yoshiki Nakamura. PDF version (193 KB) http://www.triz-journal.com/archives/2003/05/a/01.pdf Wikipedia definition of ARIZ 15 Alternative Scenarios From Mycoted Scenarios are qualitatively different descriptions of plausible futures. They can give you a deeper understanding of potential environments in which you might have to operate and what you may need to do in the present. Scenario analysis helps you to identify what environmental factors to monitor over time, so that when the environment shifts, you can recognize where it may be headed. Thinking through scenarios, while it may seem an exercise in speculation to some, is a less risky, more conservative approach to planning than relying on standard business forecasts and trend analyses. The latter have their place, but often do not employ sufficient imagination to discover how circumstances will change. Good scenario thinking helps management to take more innovative actions, and prevent undesirable outcomes. Scenarios can explore general alternative futures and specific problems or strategies. Both Factors-Based and Growth-Based methods may be used in alternative scenario development. 1. To develop Factors-Based Alternative Scenarios (FBAS): 1. State the specific decision that needs to be made. 2. Identify the major environmental factors (forces, drivers, trends, limits, etc.) that impact on the decision. For example, suppose you need to decide how to invest R & D funds in order to be positioned for opportunities that might emerge by the year 2010. The major environmental factors might include social values, economic growth world-wide and international trade access (tariffs etc.). 3. Build four scenarios based on the principal factors. To do this, use information available to you to identify four (or more) plausible and qualitatively different possibilities for each force. Alternatively, identify the two most important and most uncertain factors that are outside the control of organizational stategy (eg., high/low economic growth, good/bad weather, etc.) and develop a matrix of four outcomes based on the two factors. Assemble the alternatives for each factors outcome into internally consistent 'stories', with both a narrative and a table of key factors and scenarios. Build your scenarios around these factors. For instance, a mid-western bank used scenarios to stimulate new ideas for maintaining a strong consumer-lending business in upcoming deregulation. Scenario story lines emerged for 'As at present', 'Heated', 'Belt Tightening' and 'Isolation'. 4. With the scenarios in hand, identify business opportunities and risk management strategies within each scenario. 5. Examine the links and synergies of opportunities and risk abatement across the range of scenarios. This would help you to formulate more realistic and robust strategy. 16 For more on FBAS: See Wikipedia's entry on Scenario Planning. See Wendy Shultz's summary of the Peter Schwartz/GBN scenario building approach. 2. To develop Growth-Based Alternative Scenarios (GBAS): Beginning in the mid-1970's, after analyzing images of the future in many cultures, Jim Dator of the Hawaii Research Center for Futures Studies, made the fascinating proposal that all images can be categorized into "Four Futures", or Generic Alternative Scenarios (GAS)[1]: 1. Continuation (usually "continued economic growth") 2. Collapse (from one or more of a variety of different reasons) 3. Disciplined Society (in which society in the future is seen as organized around some set of overarching values, ancient, traditional, natural, ideologically-correct, or God-given) 4. Transformational Society (usually either "high tech" or "high spirit," or both, with the end of some current patterns/values, and emergence of new ones, rather than the return to older traditional patterns/values) John Smart of the Acceleration Studies Foundation proposes that Dator's Four Futures/GAS can be interpreted as four fundamental Growth-Based Alternative Scenarios (GBAS): 1. Continuation (A future in which current key conditions persist, including continued historical exponential growth in certain domains (economics, science and technology (S&T), cultural complexity, etc.) This marginal rate of growth increases the longer S&T have been in use by a civilization. Also known as PTE "present trends extended") 2. Limits and Discipline (A future in which we encounter resource-based or valuesbased limits to PTE. A saturation or "sustainability" regime emerges, slowing previous growth and organizing around values that are ancient, traditional, natural, ideologically-correct, or God-given) 3. Decline and Collapse (A future in which at least some conditions deteriorate from their present favorable levels, and at least some critical systems fail, due to either probable, possible, or wildcard factors) 4. Transformation (A future of disruptive emergence, "high tech," "high spirit" (consciousness, complexity), or both, with the end of some current patterns/values, and the development of new ones, rather than the return to older traditional ones. This is a transition to an "innovation" regime of new and even steeper growth, rather than the "Continuation" regime) Each of these are unique future growth alternatives. The baseline scenario expects continuation of the historical (and usually low) exponential growth in select domains, as 17 well as the stably (regular or irregular) cyclic behavior that is a feature of most environments. Growth/transformation/non-cyclic change always occurs in complex systems, even when conditions appear to be unchanging or cyclic over very long periods. Because we live in a complex and pluralistic world, all four GBAS are likely to occur in some form in the future for any issue, each in various enclaves, under differing circumstances and contexts. To maximize the GBAS's value as thinking and planning tools, scenarios for each of the four growth conditions should be written to represent the key opinions that can presently be found for each, treated as independent "schools of thought." For example, if there are presently three significant (and potentially conflicting) schools of thought on the way an institution/strategy/society might Decline and Collapse (i.e., via economics, resources, or values), one or more may be chosen by the scenario writer as key to the Decline and Collapse story, but the other types of declines and those who currently propose them as risks should also be briefly mentioned, with short reasons given as to why those particular factors did not end up being as important as their advocates had expected. With proper development, the four classic GBAS provide a rich set of alternative futures, each of which are likely to transpire, to a greater or lesser degree, depending on the circumstances and stakeholders being described. References 1. Dator, Jim. "The futures of culture/cultures of the future," in Anthony Marsella, et al., eds., Perspectives in Cross-Cultural Psychology. Academic Press, 1979. This is Dator's first publication of his Four Futures/GAS model. See also "The Future Lies Behind! Thirty Years of Teaching Futures Studies," American Behavioral Scientist, Nov 1998, for more recent discussion. 18 Analogies From Mycoted You use an analogy when you say that something is like something else (in some respects but not in others). For example: a jumbo jet is like an albatross in that they both fly, they both have wings, they can both travel for a long way without landing, and both can sense where they are going; but they are unlike in that they have different means of propulsion, are made of different materials, etc. Analogies are a key feature of many approaches to creativity. For instance, they were central to the earlier forms of Synectics and they are an important element in various types of Excursion. The term bionics has been used to describe the systematic use of biological and botanical analogies to solve novel engineering problems. Often analogies are used very informally: 'This problem makes me think of X (analogy) that suggests to me that maybe we could try Y (idea drawn from analogy X)'. But the underlying logic will be along these lines: 1. Identify what it is you want ideas for, and try to find a core verb phrase that captures the essential functional nature of what you are looking for - e.g.: 'How to make X'. 'How to prevent Y', 'How to speed up Z', 'How to become better at A'. 2. For each verb phrase generate a list of items (people, situations, objects, processes, actions, places, etc.) that is 'like' it in some way - e.g. analogies to 'making X' (having a baby, making a pudding, the Genesis creation story, a robot car factory, ...etc.). 3. Pick one of these analogies that seems interesting - preferably where the verb phrase and analogy are from different domains - e.g. a biological analogy for a mechanical problem. 4. Describe the analogue, including active aspects (such as how it works, what it does, what effects it has, how it is used) as well as passive aspects (size, position, etc.). 5. Use this description to suggest ideas relevant to your problem. Does the analogue have features you can use directly? Do the differences suggest other ways of looking at your problem? Analogies can be: Close / direct: A straight functional parallel e.g. selling science is like selling baked beans or the human arm is like an anglepoise lamp. Fantasy: What is the image that comes into your mind if you were to solve it in your wildest fantasy or within some other cartoon / fantasy world. Remote and/or surprising: 'Selling widgets' is like 'Steering an elephant'. These analogies are more likely to challenge assumptions and lead to new insights and 19 ideas - but the parallels they suggest are unlikely to have much 'rational' status. In the extreme, they merge into the use of Random stimuli. Personal / component: Here you become a component in the system. eg. if you are looking at how to get shells to more accurately hit the target, think of yourself as the tip of the shell. Techniques of Structured Problem Solving, Van Nostrand Reinhold; 20 Anonymous Voting From Mycoted The reason for using anonymity in a creativity method is to encourage participants to feel safe enough to take creative risks. It is useful for groups that have significant pressures or anxieties between participants. It is a basic feature of all nominal group methods and is an excellent way of protecting people against accidental or unintentional inter-personal pressures, in climates where there is basic goodwill towards differences of viewpoint, and a commitment to respecting them. Methods such as Anonymous Voting cannot offer a particularly robust form of anonymity, and in climates where there is a serious risk of ‘bullying’ or significant levels of paranoid anxiety, this method could lead naive participants to exposing themselves to unacceptable risks, particularly when they return to the ‘outside world’. Facilitators need to be clear that the levels of risk they are asking participants to take are realistic. (There are software systems such as "Group Works" which offer much better anonymity.) The method assumes that you start with a publicly visible list of perhaps 30-100 serially numbered ideas from some idea generation process. 1. The leader indicates the length of short-list each member is to produce (usually ca. 5-9 items – 10-15% of the number of ideas on the list), and the ranking convention (e.g. ‘A’ is most preferred, followed by ‘B’, ‘C’, etc.). 2. Members privately select their own short-list of ideas. They write each idea they select on a card with its serial list number. 3. They decide how they want to order the ideas on their short list, and write the appropriate rank letter (‘A’, ‘B’, ‘C’, … etc.) on each card. 4. The cards are handed in face down to the leader, who gathers everybody’s cards, shuffles them, and tallies the votes on a flip-chart by idea number. In this way, the vote remains anonymous. 5. Notice that using numbers for serial list position and letters for rank order avoids the risk of confusing a list position with a rank, as might happen if numbers were used for the rank. If you prefer to use numbers for the rank order, you could avoid confusion by using different number ranges. For instance, if you use 1-9 for ranks and start your serial numbering from 10, there can be no confusion. 21 Assumption Busting From Mycoted 1. List assumptions o List all the assumptions, especially the obvious ones that you would not consider challenging... 2. Challenge assumptions o test each assumption. Ask under what conditions it would not be true.. o You will start to make assumptions as you challenge some assumptions, simply add these to the list, and challenge them later. 3. Find several ways in which you can force the assumption to be true. o This is the opposite way of challenging the assumtion from 2. 22 Assumption Surfacing From Mycoted The aim of this technique is to make underlying assumptions more visible. 1. Identify a particular choice you have made, and ask yourself why you feel it is the best choice – i.e. what assumptions guide this choice. 2. List the assumptions, and beside each write a counter-assumption - not necessarily its negation, but the opposite to the issue it represents. 3. Work down the list and delete ineffective assumption/counter-assumption pairs i.e. where it would make little difference to your choice whether the assumption or the counter-assumption were actually the case. 4. Assess each of the remaining assumptions in terms of high or low potential impact (how critical is its truth to justifying your pattern of behaviour?) and high or low plausibility (how confident are you that it is, in fact, true?). 5. Plot the assumptions on a 2x2 matrix (high/low impact on one axis, high/low plausibility on the other). Plausibility Low High Most High medium serious Potential impact Least Low medium serious High impact/high plausibility assumptions are clearly the most crucial, but high impact/low plausibility assumptions need to be taken seriously, in case they turn out to be true, so check them out if you can. The assumptions in the ‘high impact’ cells are those that the user sees as largely justifying their actions. Are they over-estimating them? What could change these assumptions? What benefits would there be and for whom? The assumptions in the ‘low impact’ cells are seen as less critical, but it might be worth checking this out – are they being under-estimated? 23 Attribute Listing From Mycoted Attribute listing is a technique from the early 1930's which takes an existing product or system, breaks it into parts, identifies various ways of achieving each part, and then recombines these to identify new forms of the product or system. It has many variants, and is an important precursor to techniques such as Morphological Analysis and Value Engineering. A new kind of pen or project management method probably has much the same major functional elements as any other kind of pen or project management method, but with some important difference in the way the elements are achieved or put together. So to generate a new way of doing something, you could list all the key attributes of current approaches, and try to improve on some of them. So: 1. Identify the product or process you are dissatisfied with or wish to improve. 2. List its attributes. For a simple physical object like a pen, this might include: Material, Shape, Target market, Colours, Textures, etc. 3. Choose, say, 7-8 of these attributes that seem particularly interesting or important. 4. Identify alternative ways to achieve each attribute (e.g. different shapes: cylindrical cubic, multi-faceted….), either by conventional enquiry, or via any idea-generating technique. 5. Combine one or more of these alternative ways of achieving the required attributes, and see if you can come up with a new approach to the product or process you were working on. Unfortunately, classic Attribute Listing offered no advice about the ‘combinatorial explosion’ that occurs as the number of attributes and alternatives increases. If you have N attributes and each could be achieved in M alternative ways, there are MN combinations – so even with only 5 attributes, each with only 4 alternatives, you already have over 1000 logically different combinations! The designer is left to explore different possible combinations using imagination and intuition. Using randomly chosen combinations to stimulate ideas: If you prefer a more mechanical and less intuitive way of using this array of alternatives, you could generate provocative combinations by working through each attribute in turn and picking one of the ways of achieving that attribute at random (e.g. with dice). You can then use this either as a random stimulus to trigger more ideas (cf. Random Stimuli) or you can attempt a form of constructive evaluation by identifying what would be good about it, and what problems it would create (e.g. Plusses, potentials and concerns, or Receptivity to ideas). This process 24 of generating random combinations and then using them to stimulate ideas can be repeated ad lib. The combinatorial problem is explored more fully in later developments such as Morphological Analysis. References R. C. Crawford, The Techniques of Creative Thinking, 1954 M. Morgan, Creating Workforce Innovation, Business and Professional Publishing, 1993 25 Backwards Forwards Planning From Mycoted Backwards forwards planning is a process to help you define the problem, and make sure you are not in tunnel vision where you can't see the real problem because of the close problem you think is biting you. The process has three stages. 1. Write down the short version of the problem, preferably starting with "How to…" 2. If you were to solve the problem in statement 1, what higher level problem would it also solve? Write this down. Continue asking what higher level problem it solves and writing them down. Try to obtain at least 3 statements. 3. Going back to statement 1, ask what other benefits would flow from it, if it were a solution. Make sure these are different from those in stage 2. You can then look at the various definitions and decide which is the most appropriate statement of the problem. As an example, you are at home, your car is at the garage for repairs and you feel you really need to go and do the food shopping. Your first statement might be; "How to get into the shops." If you were to work down the list of additional problems this would solve you might write down "I could get all the food and drink for the week" Followed by " I could relax and not worry any more about where the food was" Which may lead you to " I could finish that painting I want to hang in the living room" Working the other way, what benefits would you also have if you could get to the shops may lead to; " I could have a look at some clothes whilst I was there." " I could enjoy some retail therapy" and " I could call in on my friend for a chat since they live near the shop." 26 You now have 7 potential problem statements to choose from, it may be that your original statement is the problem to be solved, or it may be that "How to find time to complete the picture I'm painting" is more important to you. See also Chunking 27 Boundary Examination From Mycoted Boundary examination, described by Rickards (1974) and VanGundy (1981) offers a refinement of problem definition. It is similar to paraphrasing key words and Boundary Relaxation. Defining a problem gives a clear task to focus on. The definition highlights some features of the situation as being particularly relevant, and plays down others as largely irrelevant. The problem boundary is the notional 'container', which separates highly relevant features (inside the boundary) from less relevant ones (outside the boundary). The problem definition, and what is relevant or not, often evolves as your understanding of the situation develops. If the boundary has been provided for you (e.g. because someone else has defined the problem for you) it will reflect their biases and concerns as well as your own, and the boundary setting may itself be part of the problem. It is easy for the area outside the boundary to become ignored ‘background’. This simple method from De Bono (1982) is designed to bring potentially relevant aspects back into awareness. 1. Write down an initial statement of the problem. 2. Underline key words 3. Examine each key word for hidden assumptions. A good way to do this is to see how the meaning of the statement changes if you replace a key word by a synonym or near synonym. 4. Having explored how the particular choice of key words affects the meaning of the statement, see if you can redefine the problem in a better way. 5. The aim is not necessarily to change the position of the boundary but rather to understand more clearly how the wording of the problem is affecting our assumptions about the boundary. 28 Boundary Relaxation From Mycoted The problem boundary is defined here as the imaginary line between what a problem is, must be, should be, or could be, and what it isn’t, mustn’t be, shouldn’t be, or couldn’t be. This approach works in two stages: first, by identifying the elements of the boundary; then seeing how far they can be loosened. See also Multiple Redefinition and Boundary Examination. Identifying the boundary The boundary can be identified and defined by a number of different techniques; By stating what the issues isn't: Take each significant term in a problem statement and define it more clearly by saying what it is not, for example: How to design a handset to replace the telephone not not not not guess, make up, draw… hands free, remote… alter, modify, change colour.. the radio, pager, computer... Research: Boundary conditions not mentioned in the problem statement may often be found by researching or generally ‘asking around’. Sometimes you may need to ‘read between the lines’. Checklists: Similar problems often share similar boundaries, so checklists can be helpful. For instance, most managerial problem solving has to work within upper (and sometimes lower) limits of: o approval authorization, legality, regulations, due process … o resources money, skill, people, time, equipment … o prior investments structure, plant, suppliers, markets, image … o Acceptability levels of intrusion, change, spread of information… o Involve mentor non-alienation staff, customers, stakeholders, etc. Boundary Brainstorming: You can use brainstorming and nominal group methods to generate lists of issues or components that might be inside the problem boundary, outside it but in the near environment, and remoter from it. Check them with people involved in the problem, and define the boundary by sorting these items into those definitely inside the boundary, definitely outside it and possibly negotiable. 29 Relaxing the boundaries Once a boundary feature has been identified clearly, then it is usually relatively simple to ask yourself and/or others involved: ‘Would it help if this part of the boundary could be altered in some way – and if so, how and when?’ It may be easier to get temporary shifting of a boundary by discreetly ‘bending’ it and making sure nothing goes wrong, than by trying to get formal permission to alter it. As is often the case ‘ it is easier to ask for forgiveness than for permission.’ 30 BrainSketching From Mycoted This technique (VanGundy, Techniques of Structured Problem Solving, 1988) is a BrainWriting technique and a variant on Pin Cards, but you pass evolving sketches rather than growing written lists of ideas around the group. As usual with most brain-writing techniques, only limited facilitation skill is needed. 1. A group of 4-8 people sit around a table, or in a circle of chairs. They need to be far enough apart to have some privacy. The problem statement is agreed, and discussed until understood. 2. Each participant privately draws one or more sketches (each on separate sheets of paper) of how it might be solved, passing each sketch on to the person on their right when it is finished. The facilitator suggests that sketches should not take more than 5 minutes or so to draw. 3. Participants take the sketches passed on to them and either develop or annotate them, or use them to stimulate new sketches of their own, passing the amended original and/or any new sketches on to their neighbour when ready. 4. After the process has been running for a suitable period and/or energy is running lower, the sketches are collected in. 5. It will probably help to display all the sketches and to discuss them in turn for clarification and comment. Then move on to any appropriate categorisation, evaluation and selection process. 31 Brainstorming From Mycoted Brainstorming was introduced by Alex Osborn, founder of the Creative Education Foundation and co-founder of the ad firm BBDO. The term Brainstorming has become a commonly used word in the English language as a generic term for creative thinking. The basis of Brainstorming is a generating ideas in a group situation based on the principle of suspending judgment - a principle which scientific research has proved to be highly productive in individual effort as well as group effort. The generation phase is separate from the judgment phase of thinking. One of the problems I find, is that there are many variants of Brainstorming, although the basic rules are the same. Classic Brainstorming goes over the typical rules and method of brainstorming. Others include; Rawlinson Brainstorming Imaginary Brainstorming Trigger Sessions Brainwriting 32 Brainwriting From Mycoted BrainWriting is a technique similar to Brainstorming and Trigger Sessions. There are many varieties, but the general process is that all ideas are recorded by the individual who thought of them. They are then passed on to the next person who uses them as a trigger for their own ideas. Examples of this include; Contents 1 BrainWriting Pool 2 BrainWriting 6-3-5 3 Idea Card Method 4 BrainWriting Game 5 Constrained BrainWriting 6 Varying the level of constraint BrainWriting Pool Each person, using Post-it notes or small cards, writes down ideas, and places them in the centre of the table. Everyone is free to pull out one or more of these ideas for inspiration. Team members can create new ideas, variations or piggyback on existing ideas. BrainWriting 6-3-5 The name Brainwriting 6-3-5 comes from the process of having 6 people write 3 ideas in 5 minutes. Each person has a blank 6-3-5 worksheet (below) Problem Statement: How to... Idea 1 Idea 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 Idea 3 33 Everyone writes the problem statement at the top of their worksheet (word for word from an agreed problem definition). They then write 3 ideas on the top row of the worksheet in 5 minutes in a complete and concise sentence (6-10 words). At the end of 5 minutes (or when everyone has finished writing) pass the worksheet to the person on your right. You then add three more ideas. The process continues until the worksheet is completed. There will now be a total of 108 ideas on the 6 worksheets. These can now be assessed. Idea Card Method Each person, using Post-it notes or small cards, writes down ideas, and places them next to the person on his or her right. Each person draws a card from there neighbours pile as needed for inspiration. Once the idea has been used, it is passed on to the person on the right along with any new, variations or piggybacked ideas. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 BrainWriting Game This method is set in the form of a light-hearted competitive game. Creativity methods normally avoid competition because it tends to be divisive. However, as long as the game atmosphere is fun rather than overly competitive, and the facilitator ensures that there are no significant losers, the game format might be useful, particularly in training contexts where winning and losing are likely to be less of an issue and both can be used to provide teaching material. The game will take a little longer than some other brainwriting techniques. Very little facilitation skill is needed. The structure is as follows: 1. Display the problem statement, and explain that the winner of the game is the one who devises the most unlikely solution. 2. The facilitator sells each group member an agreed number (say 10) of blank, serially numbered cards at, say, 10p each, pooling the money to form the prize. Each group member signs a receipt that records the serial numbers of their set of cards. 3. Members try to think of utterly implausible solutions, writing one per card. The cards are then put up on a display board. 4. Members now have (say) 15 minutes to silently read all the solutions, and to append to them (on further un-numbered cards or Post-its) ways in which they could be converted into a more practical way of solving the problem (so reducing that ideas’ chances of winning). 5. Each member then has two votes (e.g. two sticky stars) to vote for what s/he now considers to be the most improbable idea on the numbered cards. The idea that attracts most votes wins the pooled money. 6. Form two sub-groups, give half the cards to each, and give each group (say) 15 minutes to develop six viable solutions from their cards. 7. Each sub-group tries to ‘sell’ their ideas to the other sub-group. 34 8. Everyone comes together and agrees on the best ideas overall. Constrained BrainWriting On a number of occasions you may want to constrained ideas around pre-determined focus, rather than ranging freely. The versions described here use the standard Brainwriting pool technique, but bias the idea generation by using brain-writing sheets prepared in advance. 1. Present starter ideas: The leader initiates the process by placing several prepared sheets of paper in the pool in the centre of the table (see note below). 2. Private brainwriting: Each group member takes a sheet, reads it, and silently adds his or her ideas. 3. Change sheet: When a member runs out of ideas or wants to have the stimulation of another’s ideas, s/he puts one list back in the centre of the table and takes one returned by another member. After reviewing this new list s/he has just selected, s/he adds more ideas. 4. Repeat until ideas are exhausted. No discussion at any stage. Varying the level of constraint Cued brainwriting: For mild constraint, the sheets are simply primed with one or more starting ideas (e.g. SWOT's, issues) in the required area. Structured brain-writing: For a stronger constraint the sheets can be formally headed, each sheet relating to a particular issue or theme, with participants being asked to keep the ideas they contribute on each sheet relevant to the issue in the heading on that sheet. See Card Story Boards, for another way of directing idea generation. 35 Browsing From Mycoted This item is about creative browsing in a library context. However see "Using Experts" for a very different approach to information acquisition. Types of browsing The creative use of literature very often amounts to browsing. Although the importance of browsing is generally recognised, its nature appears to be little understood. At least three kinds of browsing have been recognised: Purposive browsing: Where you are deliberately seeking a defined piece of information. Capricious browsing: where you are randomly examining material without a definite goal. Exploratory browsing: Where you are consciously looking for inspiration. Factors that may support creative browsing I know little of the 'official' success rate of this sort of information seeking. However, my personal experience is that for optimal stimulation of creative ideas: Choose a variety of presentation styles. Choose a selection of material over wide subject areas. Do it yourself - you are not going to get the creative stimulus by asking someone else to look for you. You can always use someone else to refine the ideas once you have them. Make yourself comfortable - That way the sub-conscious mind can happily get on with solving those problems and trigging of the information you are getting. 36 Brutethink From Mycoted Brutethink is a technique by Michael Michalko, based on Random Stimuli, and is defined in detail in his book Thinkertoys. The process is 1. bring in a random word into the problem (from a dictionary, newspaper, book...) 2. Think of things associated with the random word 3. Force connections between the random word, and the challenge, also between the associated things and the challenge. 4. List all your ideas. 37 Bug Listing From Mycoted A bug list (Adams, Conceptual Blockbusting: A Guide to Better Ideas, 1987) is simply a list of things that bug you! It should be personal and illuminate specific areas of need. Adams recommends keeping it fluent and flexible, remembering humorous and far-out bugs as well as common ones. He suggests that if you run out of bugs in under ten minutes, you are either suffering from a perceptual or emotional block or have life unusually under control! It may well be the most specific thinking you have ever done about precisely what small details in life bother you; if properly done, your bug list should spark ideas in your mind for inventions, ideas, possible changes, etc. Example bugs could be; A program on TV A piece of music Those darn vermin by the tree outside Beer that's served too cold Offices that are too hot Flavourless food Food that has to much flavour enhancer Etc. 38 BulletProofing From Mycoted The bullet proofing technique aims to identify the areas in which your plan might be especially vulnerable: What may possibly go wrong? What are some of the difficulties that could occur? What’s the worst imaginable thing that could occur? There are some similarities with Potential Problem Analysis(PPA)(Kepner and Tregoe), Negative Brainstorming (Isaksen and Treffinger, 1985) who suggest that ‘What might happen if…?’ is a useful question to use for looking at potential challenges. Brainstorm around enquiries such as: ‘What might happen if…?’ to identify the areas in your plan of action that could potentially cause problems and which have not yet been identified. All the areas identified should be placed on a table such as the one below, showing how likely the event is to occur and if it did occur, how serious it would be for your plan. Major problems that are very likely to happen. If there are significant numbers, you may first need to priorities them so that you can focus your effort on the most important. Use any suitable problem-solving method to work out ways to dealing with them. How likely is it to occur Unlikely Major If it did Problem occur, it would be: Minor Problem Very likely Most Serious Least serious Although this type of exercise is necessary, it can have the effect of lower your spirits, looking on the ‘black side’. Should this be the case and you feel in the need for some cheering up try using the same technique in reverse: What could go well? What pleasant surprises might it deliver? What is the best thing that could happen? Obviously these uplifting enquiries should be reasonably plausible – a collection of good things that really might happen! 39 Bunches of Bananas From Mycoted The Bunches of bananas technique is one of lateral thinking, reducing excessive leftbrain attention (which may be fuelling a mind set). There are people that instinctively liven up a sluggish meeting by being provocative, or ‘throwing in a bunch of bananas’. Here are some tips: 1. Consider the mood and atmosphere: are there any signs of ‘stuckness, sluggishness, and inertia’? 2. What could you say or do to assist the group out of that state of ‘stuckness’. Create ‘bunches of bananas’ to suit your own character and style. 3. Bear in mind in mind that you are engaging in a ‘whole-brain’ activity. Just as with a comedian, it is as much the delivery as the idea, which brings about the effect. 4. If the group is inexperienced, the approach may have to be appropriately signaled: ‘I know this is going to sound a little crazy, but bear with me a minute or so. Sometime you can get out of a rut in the most unexpected ways…’ 5. For example, a group wanting to market goods from the UK to Australia exhausted all the obvious possibilities and seemed to be ‘stuck’. Then someone said: o o o o o ‘We don’t seem to be getting very far. What I’d like to do would be to find a product that every Australian sheep would be clamouring to buy’. Although this comment could have been met with disapproval or polite silence, the timing of his ‘bunch of bananas’ was just right and someone picked up the idea: ‘Sheep? Oh, you mean for us find large numbers of customers who can be influenced easily. Perhaps we have been concentrating too hard on too few clients’. The discussion this idea triggered, eventually led to a new product being marketed to Australia. 'Bunches of bananas’ can come in a variety of forms – any well placed joke or image that captures attention when appropriate. The simple use of Random Stimuli of Various Kinds can often have the same effect. In many ways, the actual content of the intervention is not important. It is concerned more with mood than with correctness of content, although it does involve some risk and uncertainty, as you can never foresee the consequence the intervention will have. 40 CATWOE From Mycoted ‘CATWOE’ is a mnemonic for a checklist for problem or goal definition (Checkland and Scholes, Soft Systems Methodology in Action, 1990). CATWOE is applied to the system which contains the problem, issue or solution, rather than to the problem or goal itself – i.e. to: ‘A system to ...’ ‘A system for ...’; or ‘A system that ...’. Such a definition should include: C The ‘customers of the system’. In this context, ‘customers’ means those who are on the receiving end of whatever it is that the system does. Is it clear from your definition who will gain or lose? A The ‘actors’, meaning those who would actually carry out the activities envisaged in the notional system being defined. T The ‘transformation process’. What does the system do to the inputs to convert them into the outputs. W The ‘world view’ that lies behind the root definition. Putting the system into its wider context can highlight the consequences of the overall system. For example the system may be in place to assist in making the world environmentally safer, and the consequences of system failure could be significant pollution. O The ‘owner(s)’ – i.e. those who have sufficient formal power over the system to stop it existing if they so wished (though they won’t usually want to do this). E The ‘environmental constraints’. These include things such as ethical limits, regulations, financial constraints, resource limitations, limits set by terms of reference, and so on. Just working through CATWOE, adding each element as you go, can lead to an unwieldy definition. It may be better to look at which are the important elements of CATWOE for any given system and use the relevant sub-set. See also: Criteria for idea-finding potential and Goal Orientation; related checklists such as Five Ws and H or Dimensional Analysis; and concepts such as the NLP ‘well-formed outcome’. References Soft Systems methodologies in Action. P. Checkland and J Scholes (1990) 41 Card Story Boards From Mycoted This technique although similarly named is quite different from the Cartoon Story Board technique. It is an ‘idea’ organizing’ method using tree logic (c.f. Mind Mapping, and other hierarchical diagrams and outlines, and Venn-convention methods such at Snowball Technique, and KJ-Method ). The facilitator is more able to concentrate on idea-generation of particular topics and subtopics much more closely than is usually possible in open-ended methods (c.f. Constrained BrainWriting as another way to achieve this). Cards are laid out in a tabular format – a simple row of header cards (or possibly header and sub-header cards as in the example below), each with a column of idea cards below it, perhaps with added action or comment notes attached (index cards or Post-it slips could be used): Using different shaped or coloured ‘header’ cards to make them more striking is helpful. The semi-sticky adhesive used on re-stickable notes is available in spray-can form, so if you want to use non-sticky cards, you can make a re-stickable display area by spraying flip-chart paper with the adhesive; the cards can then be put in position or removed and rearranged as you wish. One possible approach is as follows: 42 1. The group leader describes the problem to the participants; they then suggest possible categories of solutions. These are written on cards and displayed as a row of ‘headers’. 2. The group leader selects a particular ‘header’ and participants write ideas relating to that header on cards. These idea-cards are displayed under the relevant header, followed by the leader posing provocative questions to prompt further idea-cards under that header. This process is repeated with other headers, until there is an adequate supply of ideas. If necessary, return to Step 1 to generate further headers, and/or add sub-header cards under a particular header card 3. The idea cards should no be ranked via a suitable voting method and arranged in priority order under each header (or sub-header). The best three in each category are discussed further, and ranked amongst themselves Smithers (1984), of the Creative Thinking Centre, adds a introductory problem clarification stage by initially putting up a header saying ‘Purpose’ and then getting the group to develop idea-cards under this header for different aspects of the ‘Purpose’ of solving the problem. The headers for the idea-generation stage are then created as a result of this initial stage, one group member writes the cards, another member pins them up, allowing the group leader to concentrate on facilitation. FASTTRACK, a fully developed problem-solving process devised by Bauer and Associates (1985), makes extensive use of card story boards. They use a ‘Why?’ header (equivalent to Smitters’ ‘Purpose’), ‘Miscellaneous’ header (for use where there is disagreement about the category of an idea) ‘Wild Card’ header (where all rejected ideas are stored) ‘Causes’ header (for evaluation) ‘Consequences’ header (for evaluation) ‘Essential Criteria’ header (for evaluation) ‘Solution ideas’ header (for evaluation) ‘Selected solution(s)’ header (for evaluation) ‘Action Steps’ header (for evaluation) ‘Assessment Steps’ header (for evaluation) These establish a very compact summary of the problem and current ideas about dealing with it, in a system that is easily adjusted. You can also use header cards to represent procedural elements or steps (instead of idea categories) with the idea-cards listing the results of that step. 43 Cartoon Story Board From Mycoted Preparation - Place a piece of paper in Landscape mode (it can be A4 - but A3 or A2 is better). Split it into 6 boxes, and number them 1 to 6. Where are you going Relax, and imagine yourself at your goal. Think about the surroundings, the feelings at that point, the feelings of others, and how they see you. Freely draw an image to represent this in box 6 (bottom right corner) Where are you now Return to the present day in your imagination. Agin, think of feelings, issues and what are the most dominant features of your current situation. Draw this in Box 1 (top left) intermediate positions repeat the above for points 2,3,4,5 creating a sequence from now to the future. Potential blocks Once you have finished drawing in all 6 boxes, and are happy that they portray (to you) a sequence of events to your desired future, write in each box what is the main potential block getting from that step to the next. 44 45 Causal Mapping From Mycoted Causal mapping, (also known as cognitive mapping) helps you create a structure for messy or complex data and hencesomething that is discussible, and shareable. Eden, C. (1992). On the nature of cognitive maps. Journal of Management Studies, 29, 261-265. 46 Charette From Mycoted Originating in the US in the 1960's, ‘Charette’ involved an intensive two-week consultation process, usually preceded by a massive public relations campaign. The aim was for a local community to developed social, economic and physical plans combined the resources of a number of local bodies, and integrated them all into a prioritised programme of action. The resource people (consultants, experts, professionals) were usually brought in from out of town to bring fresh minds to the problems. The Charrette building had to be able to provide for large evening forums, small group discussions during the day; and also for secretarial services, the press, television, child care, lunch and light meals. It was a ‘livein, work-in, 24-hour facility’. The main stages were as follows: 1. A large public relations campaign (often including a questionnaire and several pre-Charrette workshops to give the community a chance to discuss the problem and to introduce it to the dynamics of Charrette. 2. Introductory speeches. 3. Split into sub-groups 4. Sub-group brainstorms, to help build key relationships and to identify community objectives and goals. 5. Sub-groups explored possible solutions to agreed issues, with public and private officials being available to discuss the impact of resource limitations and political climate, and to establish responsibility and accountability. 6. A detailed implementation strategy and action plan was then produced, with models, drawings, reports, graphics, etc. 7. The final proposals were presented before top-ranking officials, the media and the whole community, in a climate of strong community commitment. 8. A report was produced so that anyone could discover what happened. Local newspapers, TV and radio were usually closely involved. 47 Cherry Split From Mycoted Cherry Split is an "attribute listing" technique by Michael Michalko and is defined in detail in his book Thinkertoys. The process is 1. 2. 3. 4. State the challenge - in two words Split the challenge into two separate attributes Split each attribute into two further attributes continue splitting each attribute into 2 more attributes, until you have enough to work with. 5. look at each attribute at a time and try thinking of ways to change or improve it. 6. re-assemble the attributes Watch a demonstration of this technique by UC Berkeley Students: 1. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6V9TgYYDuZM 48 Chunking From Mycoted Chunking is a term used in NLP to describe the process of grouping items into larger or smaller groups (or "chunks") Chunking helps you to organise your thinking, and handle information. George Miller published a paper in 1952 "the magic number Seven, plus or minus two" put forward the idea that the conscious can cope with between 5 and 9 pieces of information at any one time. If you think how you remember those useful phone numbers, you cluster the digits into groups. If you look at phone numbers from a different country, it's often difficult to initially remember them because they tend to use a different chunking. Chunking allows us to become more efficient at categorising information. Items can be classified into different groups moving from the general to the specific, and vice versa. Chunking Up (becoming more general) As an example with an object; Alcohol Drink Liquid To chunk up from; ask part to whole what is this part of? example to class what class is this an example of? an outcome If I got this outcome, what else would that get for me? a behaviour What is the intention behind this behaviour? Chunking Down (becoming more specific) As an example Transport Taxi London Black Cab Engine 49 To chunk down from; ask part to whole what is a part of this whole? class to example what is an example of this class? an outcome What prevents me achieving this outcome ? a behaviour What other behaviour would also satisfy this intention? When to use Chunking. When you are confronted with a task that seems daunting. Chunk it down to find smaller, more manageable mini-tasks. When you are overwhelmed by details. Chunk up to find the overall meaning or purpose to "get the bug picture" or "see the wood for the trees" When you want to communicate more effectively. Make sure you package the information in chunks that are the right size for your audience. When you want to find ways of reaching an agreement See Also Backwards Forwards Planning 50 Circle of Opportunity From Mycoted Circle of Opportunity is a Morphological Forced Connections technique by Michael Michalko and is defined in detail in his book Thinkertoys. The process is 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. State the Challenge Draw a circle and number it like a clock (number 1 through 12) Select any 12 attributes Throw a pair of dice to select the first attribute Throw a pair of dice to select the second attribute Consider the attributes, both separately, and combined, to find an association between the two attributes. 7. Search for a link between your association and your challenge 51 Clarification From Mycoted The things that people actually say are often rather different from what they mean, equally parts of their story may be missing without them realising it. The clarification technique helps communication to others and will often release problems and help the problem owner as well. The material below shows how important language analyses are, on the left are some common forms of language fuzziness, and on the right are some question for clarifying them. Specific answers are requested in the questions, not only for clarifying the speaker’s own thoughts, but also preventing questioners imposing their own (possibly incorrect) interpretations on it. Notice that these are powerful questions, and used insensitively they can feel like interrogation rather than help! Deletion: Where material has been completely omitted from the sentence ‘I’m inadequate’. To do what? ‘My thinking is better’. About what? Better than what Referential index deletion: A Place, person or thing is brought into the sentence but not specified ‘Thing get me down’. What things? ‘Something should be done about it? What should be done about what? Unspecified verbs: The verb is introduced but is not clarified ‘I can deal with it’. How, specifically? ‘I’m stuck’. How are you stuck? Nominalizations: Abstract nouns like ‘pride’, ‘respect’, ‘love’, ‘confidence’, are introduced. Though apparently important to the speaker, they do not have fixed, clear meanings ‘There is no respect here’. Who is not respecting whom? Respecting in what way? ‘Knowledge is most important’. Who knows what and in what way? Modal operators: Use of limiting words like ‘cant’, and ‘must’ ‘I cant do anything right’. What prevents you? ‘You must go’. What might happen if I don’t? Lost perfomatives: A ‘should’ or ‘must’ statement that doesn’t state where its authority come from – e.g.‘People should know better’ (Who, exactly, says they should?) Generalisations and Universal quantifiers: Associating a whole class of experience with same meaning, e.g. ‘Staplers never work!’, ‘Ill never accept another sales trip again!’, ‘Everyone hats me!’. 52 Presuppositions: Parts of a statement that must have some existence for the statement to be true or valid, e.g. ‘The manager tried to lie to me again’ presupposes a manager and past lying (Exactly when and in what circumstances did the manager lie to you in the past?). Causal modelling: Any cause-effect statement that will link two or more situations in a cause-effect fashion, e.g. ‘The printer breakdown was the reason for me being late with the draft’. (Is this the only possible explanation?) Mind reading: The speaker alleges to be privy to the internal states of others, e.g. ‘I know what you are thinking’, ‘and I think he is doing that because he wants the contract’. (What is the person actually thinking or wanting?) 53 Classic Brainstorming From Mycoted 1. Arrange the meeting for a group of the right size and makeup (typically 4-8 people) 2. Write the initial topic on a flipboard, whiteboard or other system where everyone can see it. The better defined, and more clearly stated the problem, the better the session tends to be. 3. Make sure that everyone understands the problem or issue 4. Review the ground rules o Avoid criticising ideas / suspend judgement. All ideas are as valid as each other o Lots, Lots & Lots - a large number of ideas is the aim, if you limit the number of ideas people will start to judge the ideas and only put in their 'best' or more often than not, the least radical and new. o Free-wheeling. Don't censor any ideas, keep the meeting flow going. o Listen to other ideas, and try to piggy back on them to other ideas. o Avoid any discussion of ideas or questions, as these stop the flow of ideas. 5. Have someone facilitating to enforce the rules and write down all the ideas as they occur (the scribe can be a second person) 6. Generate ideas - either in an unstructured way (anyone can say an idea at any time) or structure (going round the table, allowing people to pass if they have no new ideas). 7. Clarify and conclude the session. Ideas that are identical can be combined, all others should be kept. It is useful to get a consensus of which ideas should be looked at further or what the next action and timescale is. 54 Collective Notebook From Mycoted Haefele’s Original Version According to VanGundy (1981; 1988), John Haefele (1962) of Proctor and Gamble devised CNB to encourage idea generation within an organisation. A key advantage is that since the idea generation is extended over several weeks, the opportunity for incubation and exposure to a wide range of stimuli is readily available. Unfortunately the workload on the co-ordinator can be high if numerous people are taking part, however, that on the participants is very low. Each participant is provided with a notebook (by the co-ordinator) describing the course of action and giving a broad problem statement. The notebook also contains some suggestions for generating ideas, such as: Transformation methods (reverse, expand, minimise) Exploration methods (listing problem characteristics or similar problems) Seeking remote associations (random stimuli from all five senses; unusual properties of other substances). 1. Every day, for one month each participant writes one idea in the notebook. 2. At regular periods during the month, participants are given further related information from the experts, the literature and colleagues. 3. After four weeks, the participants present a brief written summary, giving: o Their best idea to solve the problem o Ideas for further investigations that might help solve the problem o Any completely new ideas about issues unconnected to the problem. 4. The notebooks are collected (by the co-ordinator), where the ideas are categorised and summarised. 5. Participants can then view all the notebooks and the co-ordinator's report, after which there may be a general group discussion. Pearson’s Variant Pearson’s (1979) report is built on the basic structure of Haefel’s original version, but brings his version closer to the Delphi technique. Participants are drawn from several organisations all over the country and provided with notebooks describing the procedure and giving a broad scenario-prediction task (e.g. about the factors likely to affect managers in the short, medium and long term and their possible consequences) 55 For up to 2 weeks each participant writes one idea per day in the notebook and then exchanges their notebook with a pre-assigned partner, reads the partner’s ideas, and then continues adding one idea a day to the partner’s book for a further week. The notebooks are then collected and divided between a team of 3 co-coordinators (to reduce the administrative load) who highlight the key ideas. Responses are categorised (e.g. into issues vs. consequences) and recorded onto index cards. Alternative storyline scenarios are then developed (e.g. round one set of grouping in terms of political, social, technical, economic, personal and resource consequences and another in terms of shortmedium- and long-term futures). The scenarios are compared and discussed to generate further ideas. 56 Comparison tables From Mycoted The two tables below show both simple and complex forms of the classic method of comparing small numbers of alternatives in terms of multiple properties (e.g. as used in many of the ‘best buy’ magazines). This particular version uses manual compilation, however there are software tools available, which would speed up the process. An alternative option of a series of imaginary holidays appears on the left of the table, with a series of criteria along the top (happy kids, low cost, etc.) on which they are to be compared in order of importance to the decision maker (as indicated by the ‘weight’ to be attached to each criterion). The main body of the table contains raw and weighted scores for each alternative on each criterion. This comparison uses ratings from 1 to 5 (the ‘raw score’ columns), plus a numerical ‘weight’ for each criterion (also 1 to 5), so that weighted scores can in theory go from 1 (raw score = 1; weight=1) to 25 (raw score = 5; weight = 5). Options Happy Kids (weight=5) Low Cost (weight=3) Happy Adults (weight=2) Easy Travel (weight=1) Totals Sum Sum of Raw Weighted Raw Weighted Raw Weighted Raw Weighted of &nbsp weighted score score: x5 score Score: x3 score score: x2 score score: x1 raw score scores Walking 1 5 3 9 4 8 4 4 12 26 Holiday Cruise 2 10 1 3 2 4 3 3 8 20 Holiday Beach 4 20 1 3 3 6 2 2 10 31 Holiday Stay at 1 5 5 15 2 4 5 5 13 29 home Holiday 5 25 1 3 1 2 2 2 9 32 Camp During the final comparison, the ‘weighted value’ of a given option on a given criterion is the raw score for that option on that criterion, multiplied by the weight of that criterion. Thus, ‘beach holiday’ gets a raw score of ‘4’ on the ‘happy kids’ criterion. However as this criterion is highly valued (at 5) ‘beach holiday’ gets a weighted value of 20 (4 x 5). 57 It is clear that the ‘Total’ on the right shows ‘Stay at home’ would win on ‘raw scores’ (Sum of raw scores = 13) basis, but ‘Holiday camp’ wins once you allow for the different weight of each criterion (Sum of weighted scores = 32). Nevertheless the results are still very sensitive to the exact values chosen. For instance, if the criterion ‘Low cost’ is given a weight of ‘4’ rather than ‘3’, ‘Stay at home’ would win instead (Sum of its weighted scores would be 34, whereas Holiday camp would only increase to 33). Such technicalities can make it quite difficult to see what going on unless one option is ‘head and shoulders’ above the rest. Sensitivity to slight changes also makes this an easy method to ‘rig’ so as to manufacture an impressive-looking self-objective case that seems to support an option that you happen to be in favour of! The qualitative version presents essentially the same picture, but reduced to a scatter of ‘+’ and ‘-‘ signs, which amount, effectively, to a five-point scale: --, -, blank, +, ++: Walking Holiday Cruise Holiday Beach Holiday Stay at home Holiday Camp Happy kids (+++) Low cost (++) - + + ++ ++ - Happy adults Easy travel (++) (+) ++ + + ++ - - To use this table begin by selecting the options that score best on the most important criterion. If there is only one (as above), it wins. If several tie, compare the tied options on the next most important criterion. Again, if there is only one, it wins, but if several are still tied, move on to the next criterion. And so on. Less important criteria are only used to resolve ties. As this procedure is much easier and less obscure, the implications of working with such crude information are much simpler to grasp and discuss (and if necessary to allow for an even ignore). 58 Component Detailing From Mycoted The component detailing technique (Watkin, 1985) has associations with Attribute Listing and BrainSketching. Components are drawn in much the same way as the old children’s game combining pictures of heads, bodies and legs taken from different people to make a bizarre composite person. The method works best when the ‘problem’ is the design of a physical object, but it can also work with problems whose components have a clear logical, rather than physical, relation to one another. It has strong elements of ‘problem exploration’ as well as ‘idea-generation’, because it often helps comprehensive understanding and the development of new viewpoint. 1. Assemble a group of participants to break a problem down into as many major components (sub-systems or sub-assemblies) as there are group members. The group lists the features of each component (c.f. Attribute Listing ). 2. Each group member is allotted one component and should try unearthing a way to produce a sketch of a way of ‘solving’ it, making their sketch as detailed as is achievable in the time available (c.f. BrainSketching ). 3. Reconstruct all the component drawings into one large collage that is organised to represent a (probably rather bizarre!) composite ‘solution’ of the whole problem – i.e. all fit crudely together (either physically or logically) as a ‘complete’ product or solution (like the artificial person created in the ‘heads, bodies and legs’ game). 4. The composite collage is then looked at and discussed for new ideas and perspective on the original problem, or indeed for ideas for completely new products 59 Concept Fan From Mycoted The Concept Fan is a way of discovering alternative approach’s to a problem when you have discarded all obvious solutions. It develops the principle of 'taking a step back' to get a broader viewpoint. Initially, the Concept Fan requires you to draw a circle in the middle of a large piece of paper. Write the problem you are trying to solve in the circle. To the right of it radiate lines representing possible solutions to the problem see the diagram below: It is possible that the ideas you have come up with are impractical or do not really solve the problem. If this is the case, take a 'step back' for a broader analysis of the problem. Drawing a circle to the left of the first circle does this, writing the broader definition into this new circle and linking it with an arrow to show that it comes from the first circle, see diagram below: Use this as a starting point to radiate out other ideas, if this does not give you an adequate amount of new ideas, you can take yet another step back (and another, and another…) Edward de Bono devised the idea of the Concept Fan in his book ‘Serious Creativity’. 60 Consensus Mapping From Mycoted The consensus mapping technique (Hart et al., 1985) helps a facilitator and group reach consensus about how best to arrange a network of up to maybe 20 – 30 activities that have to be sequenced over time into a useable plan of action (e.g. outlining a 10-year network of sequentially linked activities to deal with a complex environmental pollution issue). These will usually be activities that could be done in a range of orders – i.e. the order has to be approved – it is not given by the internal logic of the activities themselves. The technique has parallels to many of the usual project planning methods (and could if necessary feed into them) but operates at a purely qualitative, outline, level. It merges elements of standard clustering techniques such at KJ-method and Snowball Technique with elements of sequential mapping Causal Mapping incorporated into a wider consensus-seeking procedure that has associates with Eden;s SODA method. Here is the suggested procedure: 1. Present the ideas: Devise a master list, via any suitable means, detailing all the ideas to be used in the single coherent action plan required, e.g. brainstorm the activities needed to implement some idea or project. Everyone copies the master list onto Post-its, or equivalent, one idea per slip. 2. Form groups: The facilitator form 2 – 4 task groups, each of 5 – 9 individuals in each. 3. Private clustering: Individuals in groups makes their own private attempt to group the ideas into related clusters or categories. 4. Sharing in triads: Join together in pairs or triads within each task group to describe one another’s clusters. 5. Group clustering: Individual task groups combine to try merging their private clustering into a shared clustering they can all accept. 6. Group review: following group clustering, clarification of the original ideas, and re-evaluation of them takes place. 7. Facilitators create and present a ‘Strawman’ integrated map: each task group delivers their group clusters to the facilitator they then take a break. During the break, staff members consolidate the group cluster maps into a single overall cluster map, containing all the ideas, categories, and relationships generated by the groups. This ‘Strawman map’ is presented to the group as a whole when they come back together. 8. Map reconfiguration: The whole group splits itself again into the respective task groups, and each one uses the ‘Strawman Map’ for motivation and stimuli for developing its own map in which cluster of activities are linked sequentially. Links made of ribbon or yarns are better than pen lines at this stage, because they can be changed. 61 9. Plenary presentation: Each task group exhibits its map of sequentially linked clusters to the others. 10. Map consolidation: Representatives from each task group meet to construct a single final map that combines the features of all the maps. The complete procedure works best with a trained group, but the mapping element could easily be adapted to informal solo use. 62 Constrained BrainWriting From Mycoted Constrained BrainWriting On a number of occasions you may want to constrain ideas around a pre-determined focus, rather than ranging freely. The versions described here use the standard Brainwriting pool technique, but bias the idea generation by using brain-writing sheets prepared in advance. 1. Present starter ideas: The leader initiates the process by placing several prepared sheets of paper in the pool in the centre of the table (see note below). 2. Private brainwriting: Each group member takes a sheet, reads it, and silently adds his or her ideas. 3. Change sheet: When a member runs out of ideas or wants to have the stimulation of another’s ideas, s/he puts one list back in the centre of the table and takes one returned by another member. After reviewing this new list s/he has just selected, s/he adds more ideas. 4. Repeat until ideas are exhausted. No discussion at any stage. See BrainWriting 63 Contradiction Analysis From Mycoted At the heart of most problems is a contradiction between two requirements or factors. These contradictions can either by technical; where alternative solutions improve one aspect of the design at the expense of another: or physical; where the physical state of the object must be in two states at once. If these contradiction can be understood, and innovative solutions found, significant advances can be made. In many systems the majority of the contradictions can be easily found. For example, in the case of the car, the requirement to go as far as possible can be thought of as the need to carry the maximum fuel load. This is contradicted by the need to weigh as little as possible extend endurance, and thus reduce fuel load. With the conventional internal combustion engine this is not a significant problem. However the electric car shows the contradiction in sharp focus. An innovative solution might be to reduce the weight of the fuel by increasing its energy density (i.e. better batteries). However, by identifying the contradiction it becomes possible to think past this. The best solution is one where the contradiction is removed: where there is no link between the amount of fuel and the weight. This could be achieved by obtaining the fuel from outside the moving car. This brings the solutions of solar power, but also highlights the possibility of tram like systems, with the car tapping the fuel source from non moving sources. In addition it is important to identify those contradiction which are not obvious. Often the design of the existing object was based upon an understanding of the obvious factors and contradictions, but ignorance of the minor ones. This can lead to factors which hindsight can identify and improve. Keep a list of the contradiction inherent in those problems you attack on a day to day basis. Add to the list as you find new ones and try and identify the interrelation between these contradictions. If you can find a way of removing or reducing multiple contradiction at once, you have a greater probability of identifying a workable solution. 64 Controlling Imagery From Mycoted The following set of techniques has been devised to help exercise more control over you imagery, both in the positive sense of doing more with it, and in the negative sense of knowing how to stop it or defuse it. Contents 1 Developing Your Skill in Changing Your Imagery, approach this by making the change in stages: 2 Tackling a Frightening Image in Stages 3 Ways of Stopping Compulsive Trains of Unwanted Images 4 Ways of Dissipating Fearful Images Developing Your Skill in Changing Your Imagery, approach this by making the change in stages: Example 1: presume that you can’t imagine yourself floating up to the ceiling. Begin by imagining a floating balloon, then a floating cup, a briefcase, a chair, and eventually yourself. Example 2: presume you have a problem changing a blue hat into a red one. Begin by adding one red button to the hat, then two, etc., until the hat is red. Tackling a Frightening Image in Stages 1. Devise a progressive series of images: write down a description of the image, and develop a progressive sequence from images that are easy to imagine, through to the trickier ones and finally the most upsetting image itself. It may help to have a partner to talk you through steps 2 – 4. 2. Relax/imagine cycle: Relax. Imagine the simplest image on your list. If you feel anxious, put the image out of your thoughts and relax once more. Now try again. 3. Repeat as required at a given level: repeat the cycle of imagine-then-relax until you are able to view the first image easily. You could try an indirect method – e.g. imagine watching a film about the image, or a film about someone making a film about it. 4. Progress in stages: Once you feel comfortable with the ‘easy’ image, go onto the next, repeating the process until you can view this image without anxiety. Continue through the sequence of images. Taking several sessions if necessary. Never force the pace. 65 Ways of Stopping Compulsive Trains of Unwanted Images Switch attention: open your eyes, switch your attention to thinking about something very mundane like what you had for lunch, and discontinue the fantasy. Stop! Method: Try putting the images into words, then snapping your fingers and ordering them to ‘Stop!’ or getting someone to shout ‘Stop!’ for you, or even just saying it to yourself, though that is not so effective. Take a deep breath then let it out slowly, relaxing your face, neck, shoulders and arms as you do so. Take a second deep breath let it out slowly, relaxing your front and back and legs right down to the ground as you do so. Then take two normal breaths, shorter and shallower. Flooding method: Attempt creation of more images of a similar kind – flooding yourself with them, to reduce the demand. E.g., move closer and further from the imagery, examining it in detail and from every angle, until the mind is exhausted. If going close feels uncomfortable, imagine a telescope, so that you can see the detail from a safe distance. Reversal method: To eliminate a passive worry, imagine its pleasurable opposite. If you are distressed about a deadline, fantasise about the enjoyable experience of meeting it! Ways of Dissipating Fearful Images Close examination: If you feel up to it, look at the image closely and describe it in detail. Dialogue: If there is one figure, which is threatening, real or unreal, engage the figure in dialogue and ask what it wants. Talk to it. Empathising: Imagine you are the threatening object. How does the figure feel? If it is some sort of creature, look in its eyes. Find out what it likes to eat. Feed it. Light: It you and the figure are surrounded by dark, visualise yourself taking the threatening creature into the sunlight. See if it alters in any way. Imagine the figure or the whole scene bathed in white light. Helper: If you would like a companion, bring someone into your fantasy to help you or to be with you, or find a competent guide in your imagination whom you trust and who can go with you Talisman/wand: Remember that in fantasy anything is possible. Give yourself of a magic wand or magic power. Call on religious or supernatural power or help (e.g. God). Transform but do not destroy: Because the imagery is all part of you, it can often be transformed successfully, but ‘killing’ it doesn’t usually work and the ‘killed’ feelings are likely to return in another form. Warning: As with all imagery based methods, you should be conscious of the possibility that you may experience imagery relating to unexpected matters – maybe to undesirable 66 past memories. Should this be a concern, don’t use imagery-based methods, or use them with appropriate level of support. 67 Crawford Slip Writing From Mycoted Crawford developed the Crawford slip writing method in the USA in the 1920’s, for use in gathering ideas from large groups (even up to 5000 people, though it's much easier to handle with, say, 50 – 200). It is actually one of the original forms of BrainWriting, and for small groups it reduces to an undemanding ‘private idea generation’ phase. It is used with large gatherings of people in say, a lecture theatre or hall and is in many ways is the manual, text-based, predecessor of a modern radio or TV ‘phone-in’. 1. Each person is given a stack or note-pad of at least 25 small slips of paper (e.g. A6 paper). The pads are often pre-prepared to consist of idea-jogging graphics, or in the case of larger groups, the time and activity of handling the pads in Step 5 becomes crucial, so the pad needs to be designed so that the ideas can be separated and sorted easily. 2. At appropriate points in the general proceedings, problem statements are read out to the group using any of the well established procedures such as: ‘How to…’ or ‘In what ways might we…’. The search is generally for ideas for solutions, however in some instances you may want to get ideas for alternative problem statements, or related issues, etc. 3. Participants are told to write ideas of the required kind one per sheet, in any order. Displayed images or words to the whole meeting to act as triggers, or organising participants to work in twos or threes (e.g. with others sitting near them), can help with stimulating ideas. 4. When writing has begun to slow down (usually 5 – 10 minutes) the note-pads are collected. 5. If rapid feedback is being attempted, the booklets are immediately divided up between the members of a team of helpers and sorted in agreed ways – e.g. by frequency of occurrence and/or feasibility. If a greater degree of sophisticated categorisation is required, then the categories will probably have to be predetermined (e.g. from an earlier pilot), so that each team member can work to the same categories. In the case of a very large meeting, presenting early feedback as examples drawn from a limited random sample of booklets may be the best option. Feedback during the same meeting is difficult to achieve. However, for an event lasting several days (such as a conference) quite complex feedback throughout the duration of the conference is plausible if the logistics are well planned. Rapid feedback from a large exercise can be quite a coup de theatre if organised successfully. 6. After the early feedback, analysis and evaluation can continue at a steadier pace to identify the most useful ideas and develop them into practicable proposals. 68 7. Finally, a feedback report dispatched to participants is often valuable. This technique can successfully supply a method of achieving large numbers of ideas swiftly, at the same time creating a sense of democratic responsiveness However, if the group is very large, the mass dynamics of timing, mood, image, ‘warmup’ cultural acceptability, etc. can be critical. In the wrong environment, people may feel embarrassed, angry or resentful at being asked to participate. Conversely, if you create a very positive crowd mood, people may develop exaggerated expectations about your ability to follow up their ideas, and become disillusioned when very few ideas are take up. To improve on this, automated techniques where participants have electronic voting buttons or (in smaller numbers) each have their own networked computer and keyboard have proved more successful. Evidence from computer studies suggests that provided that pace and energy can be upheld and that the logistics can be handled (easier said than done) there is no ‘optimal group size’ the larger the group, the more ideas you will get, though obviously there is a law of diminishing returns. 69 Creative Problem Solving - CPS From Mycoted Osborn's Checklist the origin of Classical Brainstorming is the root of creative problem solving (CPS). There are a variety of general structures: ‘define problem, generate possible solutions, select and implement the best’ which can be found extensively, in several different academic traditions. However, the account illustrate here was formulated by Sidney Parnes in the 1950’s and has been build upon continuously since then by various authors, e.g. Isakesen and Treffinger (1985) Isaksen, Dorval and Treffinger (1994 and 1998). The method can be used as a training programme and has a very extensive track record linked particularly with the Centre for Studies in Creativity of the State University College at Buffalo, New York, the Buffalo Creative problem Solving Group, and with the Centre for Creative Learning in Sarasota, Florida. In it’s most extended and formalised form it has the six stages shown below, each with a divergent and a convergent phase. However, more recent publications seem more interested in focusing on procedure and technique issues, with less weight on the full elaboration of this structure. The following, based on Van Gundy (1988’s) description, is a very brief skeleton of a very rich process, showing it in its full ‘6 x 2 stages’ form: 1. Stage 1: Mess finding: Sensitise yourself (scan, search) for issues (concerns, challenges, opportunities, etc.) that need to be tackled. o Divergent techniques include ‘Wouldn’t It Be Nice If…’ (WIBNI) and ‘Wouldn’t It Be Awful If…’ (WIBAI) – brainstorming to identify desirable outcomes, and obstacles to be overcome. o Convergent techniques include the identification of hotspots ( Highlighting ), expressed as a list of IWWMs (‘In What Ways Might…’), and selection in terms of ownership criteria (e.g. problem-owner’s motivation and ability to influence it) and outlook criteria (e.g. urgency, familiarity, stability). 2. Stage 2: Data finding: Gather information about the problem. o Divergent techniques include Five Ws and H (Who, Why, What, When, Where and How) and listing of wants, sources and data: List all your information ‘wants’ as a series of question; for each, list possible sources of answers; then follow these up and for each source, list what you found. o Convergent techniques again include: identifying hotspots (Highlighting); Mind-mapping to sort and classify the information gathered; and also restating the problem in the light of your richer understanding of it. 3. Stage 3: Problem finding: convert a fuzzy statement of the problem into a broad statement more suitable for idea finding. 70 Divergent techniques include asking ‘Why?’ etc. – the repeatable questions and Five W's and H. o Convergent techniques include Highlighting again, reformulation of problem-statements to meet the criteria that they contain only one problem and no criteria, and selection of the most promising statement (but NB that the mental ‘stretching’ that the activity gives to the participants can be as important as the actual statement chosen). 4. Stage 4: Idea Finding: generate as many ideas as possible o Divergence using any of a very wide range of idea-generating techniques. The general rules of Classic Brainstorming (such as deferring judgement) are likely to under-pin all of these. o Convergence can again involve hotspots or mind-mapping, the combining of different ideas, and the short-listing of the most promising handful, perhaps with some thought for the more obvious evaluation criteria, but not over-restrictively. 5. Stage 5: Solution finding: Generate and select obvious evaluation criteria (using an expansion/contraction cycle) and develop (which may include combining) the short-listed ideas from Idea Finding as much as you can in the light of these criteria. Then opt for the best of these improved ideas (e.g. using Comparison tables). 6. Stage 6: Acceptance finding: How can the suggestion you have just selected be made up to standard and put into practice? Shun negativity, and continue to apply deferred judgement – problems are exposed to be solved, not to dishearten progress. Action plans are better developed in small groups of 2 – 3 rather than in a large group (unless you particularly want commitment by the whole group). Particularly for ‘people’ problems it is often worth developing several alternative action plans. Possible techniques include – Five W's and H, Implementation Checklists, Consensus Mapping, Potential-Problem Analysis (PPA) o 71 Criteria for idea-finding potential From Mycoted The focus and content of a problem statement can be adjusted and developed in a variety of ways. However after the development stage it is valuable to ensure that the way it is expressed will support the workings of the problem solving method you are using. Isakesen, Dorval and Treffinger (1994) developed this straightforward checklist, which is supportive of this procedure Does it show the way to lots of ideas? Is it the question about which you want to find ideas? Does it locate the ownership clearly? Is if affirmative in its orientations? Is it free of criteria? Is it stated briefly and clearly? If the statement appears to falter on any criteria, perhaps you can modify it to reinforce its effectiveness for gathering ideas. (See also the CATWOE criteria) 72 Critical Path Diagrams From Mycoted The critical path method (CPM), and the Project Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT), both devised independently in the 1950’s, but share similarities and now form the basis of many project planning software packages. The description outline below is simplified approach to CPM and assumes that you can recognize component activities that are required to carry out your project, the sequence(s) in which they must take place and how long each will take. The purpose of CPM is to permit you to recognise, which activities lay on the ‘critical path’ – i.e. those for which any setback or rushing will affect the overall time for the project. This will assist you in managing the collection of tasks to accomplish fixed time targets overall. More advance forms of CPM also know about the cost of each element, so overall costs can be managed as well as timing. The fundamental elements of a critical path diagram (illustrated above) are: Arrows (blue) that represent activities – area of work that use up time or resources – e.g. ‘build wall’, ‘train personnel’, ‘print 1000 leaflets’. These start (green) and end (red) circles that represent events – points in time that usually mark the start or end of an activity (e.g. ‘start wall’, leaflets arrive’); events do not, themselves, consume time or resources. 73 Sometimes you also need dashed arrows that indicate sequence (i.e. where one event must be completed before another starts even though they are not directly linked by an activity). 1. List all the activities and sub-activities required to accomplish your project and identify the events that start or end each of these activities. 2. Construct the map as illustrated above, showing the overall sequences you require. No event can happen until all the activities feeding into it are complete and no activity can start until the event it follows has happened. Unlike flowchart methods of representing action plans, classic CPM networks have no loops, optional routes or decision nodes. Every activity must happen in the order shown, and once it has happened, it can’t happen again. The diagram is drawn as if you have made all the decisions in advance and know exactly what has to happen, in what order (however see point 4 below!) 3. Check the diagram carefully, adding any details needed to make it function correctly. 4. Work out the earliest and latest possible start times of each activity, where there is slack, and where the critical path lies. Reviewing the example above, it is clear that they start building the walls on the second day, start tiling the roof on the sixth day, and complete at the end of the seventh day. The sequence of activities that goes through the upper branch is the critical path because any delay anywhere in this sequence adds to the total; there is no slack. However, the bottom branch does have slack in it - it needs only 2.5 days while the top branch needs 4 days. 5. Adjust as required should things not go as planned, amending the diagram to meet the new conditions, but these alternative possibilities are in your head; they are not shown on the diagram itself. 74 DO IT From Mycoted DO IT is an acronym that stands for: D - Define problem O - Open mind and apply creative techniques I - Identify best solution T - Transform These stages are explained in more detail below: Contents 1 Define Problem 2 Open Mind and Apply Creative Technique 3 Identify the Best Solution 4 Transform Define Problem Analysing the problem to ensure that the correct question is being asked. The following points may help to do this: Check that you are tackling the problem, not the symptoms of the problem. To do this, ask yourself why the problem exists repeatedly until you get to the root of it. (see 'Why?' etc. - repeatable questions) Lay out the bounds of the problem. Work out the objectives that you must achieve and the constraints that you are operating under. Where a problem appears to be very large, break it down into smaller parts. Keep on going until each part is achievable in its own right, or needs a precisely defined area of research to be carried out. Summarize the problem in as concise a form as possible. Open Mind and Apply Creative Technique Once you know the problem that you want to solve, you are ready to start generating possible solutions. It is very tempting just to accept the first good idea that you come across. If you do this, you will miss many even better solutions. At this stage of DO IT we are not interested in evaluating ideas - we are trying to generate as many different ideas as possible. Even bad ideas may be the seeds of good ones. 75 You can use the whole range of creativity techniques covered on this site to obtain possible solutions. Identify the Best Solution Only at this stage do you select the best of the ideas you have generated. It may be that the best idea is obvious. Alternatively, it may be worth examining and developing a number of ideas in detail before you select one. You can use techniques such as ((Forcefield analysis)). Transform Having identified the problem and created a solution to it, the final stage is to implement this solution. This involves not only development of a reliable product from your idea, but all the marketing and business side as well. This may take a great deal of time and energy. Many very creative people fail at this stage. They will have fun creating new products and services that may be years ahead of what is available on the market. They will then fail to develop them, and watch someone else make a fortune out of the idea several years later. 76 Decision seminar From Mycoted The decision seminar technique (Laswell, 1960, described in VanGundy, 1981; 1988)) is a predecessor of the Think Tank technique of the 1960’s and is derived from a more sociological rather brainstorming procedure. It was primarily designed by a social science research facility to tackle applied social policy issues in an efficient way, focusing on past, present and future developments. A core group of possibly 15 (joined as required by external expert, etc.), worked over an comprehensive period of time from a permanent chart and map room, using a standardised ‘general purpose’ conceptual framework: Five Intellectual tasks: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Clarifying goals Describing trends over time Analysing conditions that affect these trends Projecting developments – how current policies are likely to turn out Invention, evaluation and selection of alternatives to achieve desired goals Seven Broad Information-gathering categories: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Participants Perspectives Situations Base-values (a SWOT-like analysis) Strategies (how base-value position is used) Outcomes (of the strategies) Effects (on participants) Value Analysis using Eight key values: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Power Enlightenment Wealth Well-being Skill Affection Respect Rectitude Seven step Decision process: 77 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Gathering and processing information Making and promoting recommendations Developing and prescribing general policy rules Deciding how to monitor adherence to rules Applying the rules Appraising the rules Terminating the policy This standardised conceptual framework was supported by a variety of techniques and a strong emphasis on clear record keeping and on the use of visible maps and charts. 78 Delphi From Mycoted The Delphi technique was developed in the 1950’s by the RAND Corporation as a tool for harnessing the views of a group of experts to forecast the potential damage from atom bomb attacks. Other users for Delphi are in the surfacing and judging components of messy issues. Its main disadvantage being its high administrative overhead, however the method has been successfully incorporated in some computerised problem solving systems. Between 2 – 5 consecutive questionnaires to a group of perhaps 15 – 25 people (occasionally up to 100) selected either as experts in the matter being investigate (if the intention of the exercise is to gather expert opinions on some issue) or as people directly concerned in some issue (if the purpose is to surface social or organisational concerns). E.g. a business creation agency used their voluntary steering group of local small business experts as a Delphi panel when trying to identify the psychological barriers inhibiting people from starting up their own businesses. 1. Nominate the Panel; assuming they are experts and busy people, it is likely that they will require reassurance that there are advantages to their accepting the considerable commitment involved. 2. Develop, send out, and get back the opening questionnaire; one or two broad open-ended questions are sent out initially and responses are preferred in the form of a list of separate sentences or short paragraphs rather than continuous text. A reminder letter may be required to encourage late responders. 3. Develop, send out, and get back the second questionnaire; this subsequent document is created in light of the responses to the initial questionnaire. The responses to the first questionnaire are collated into a single anonymous list (using the original wording since participants will recognise their own contributions), the respondents’ are the asked to rate every item in the list (e.g. on a five point scale of importance, priority, feasibility, relevance, validity…) and finally to include any additional items suggested by the combined listing. 4. A brief Delphi might end at this point; (in which case conclude), however a more extended Delphi may profit from additional rounds. The response ratings to questionnaire 2 are averaged and questionnaire 3 may ask the panel members to indicate where they felt the order of ratings need could be improved. There is no reason why this cannot be repeated for further questionnaires until a steady pattern materialises, but few expert panels have the patience for many further rounds unless the issue is crucial to them. Alternatively, the items rated above a certain threshold could be printed on separate cards, with a request for each panel member to sort the cards into related clusters. 5. Thank the participants; the panel members will have been selected for their expertise and/or direct involvement, they are likely to have strong interest in the 79 outcome, so a summary report and letter of thanks is usually forwarded to each member following the project. Some individuals may have given up substantial amounts of time to the project in which case a suitable ‘executive gift’ is often appropriate. When the Delphi method is used to address a single, well defined, problem (such as its original use in estimating likely damage levels from nuclear war) the outcome may be easily summarised. However, when used to surface and prioritise concerns, the output can be quite large (a panel of 20 can easily generate 15 – 20 concerns each – perhaps 2 – 300 distinct items) so as in any form of brainstorming or brain writing, some type of convergent post-Delphi analysis may be needed. See also Collective Notebook, Estimate-Discuss-Estimate and Using Experts 80 Dialectical Approaches From Mycoted The dialectical approach (Mason and Mitroff, 1981) uses creative conflict to help identify and challenge assumptions to create new perceptions. Firstly the devil’s advocate approach is useful in exposing underlying assumptions, but has a tendancy emphasise the negative, whereas dialectical inquiry has a more balanced approach. (See also Idea Advocate ) The Devil’s Advocate An administrator advocates a plan, which is then studied by an appointed individual who takes on the role of an adverse critic, examining the proposal looking for inconsistencies, inaccuracies and irrelevancies. The evaluation may be enclosed in a report, or a live confrontation conference may be set up between the administrator and the critic, with key decision makers as observers. Finally, the decision makers can then accept, modify or re-develop the proposal. Dialectical Inquiry Formation of proposal and counter-proposal groups Review group set-up, which contains the senior manager, involved. The proposal group should develop a plan, compiling a short list of key assumptions underlying the plan; this is given to the counter-proposal group. The counter-proposal groups should endeavour to develop a counter-plan, looking at each assumption, breaking them down, to invent a plausible counter-assumption, and using it to surface new data, re-interpret old data, and devise a counter-plan. The Review group is presented plans from the proposal and counter-proposal groups. Either side outlining data and assumptions they consider important and probing weaknesses of the other side’s plan. A facilitator maintains goodwill and prevents the competitiveness becoming destructive. The review group are looking for further unmentioned assumptions that may be central to the theory behind the problem. Should arguments become repetitive the facilitator ends the debate and there is a break to socialise and reconnect on a personal level. The total group now work together, led by the review group their aim is to generate a list of agreed upon fundamental assumptions and the generation of a new plan. All the assumptions that featured highly in the debate are pooled. Unacceptable assumptions are weeded out, and where necessary, competing assumptions are either re-worked so as to 81 be acceptable to both sides, or simple tests are devised to decide between them. The group will need the skills and attitudes needed for coping with muddled problems – finding the exact problem, representing alternative maps, and employing humour, confidence and enthusiasm to maintain the process. 82 Dimensional Analysis From Mycoted The dimensional analysis technique is a checklist (Jensen, 1978) that relates to Five Ws and H, and is of most use as an aide memoir for initial exploration of a problem or evaluating options, particularly those associated with human relations, rather than of a technical nature. Jensen defines a problem as a violation of values – a slightly unusual approach that is reflected in this list: Contents 1 Substantive Dimension (‘What?’) 2 Spatial Dimension (‘Where?’) 3 Temporal (‘When?’) 4 Quantitative (‘How much?’) 5 Qualitative (‘How serious?’) Substantive Dimension (‘What?’) Commission/omission? Doing something wrong, or failing to do something? Attitude/deed? Is it necessary to change attitudes or practices? Ends/means? Is the irritant we see the actual problem or merely a symptom of it? Active/passive? Active threat or source of irritation? Visible/invisible? Is the problem masked (e.g. covert human relations issues) Spatial Dimension (‘Where?’) Local/distant? Is it merely local or are their some remote influences Particular location(s) within a location. Recognise the exact area concerned. Isolated/widespread? Is the problem isolated or linked to several other problem areas. Temporal (‘When?’) Long-standing/recent? Which are parts are new and which are old? Present/Impending? Is the problem happening or looks as though it may happen? Constant/ebb-and-flow? Is the problem always there, irregular or cyclic? Quantitative (‘How much?’) Singular/multiple? Is there a single cause or are there many? 83 Many/few people? How many people are affected by the problem? General/specific? Is the problem applicable to a broad category or very specific sub-area? Simple/complex? Are there several elements to the problem with complex interactions? Too much/too little? Appears as a shortage or surplus? Qualitative (‘How serious?’) Philosophical/surface, is it an issue with deep values or surface practicalities? Survival/enrichment? Is it a live-or-die issue, or one to do with managing quality? Primary/secondary? What priority does the issue have top or bottom? What values are being violated? See Jensen’s definition of a problem (above). To what degree are they being violated? Qualifies previous answer. Proper/improper values? Not all values should be honoured. 84 Disney Creativity Strategy From Mycoted This technique was developed by Robert Dilts, a pioneer in NLP, by looking at the way Walt Disney was so successful at turning fantasies into reality. The strategy seperates out the three vital roles in the process; Dreamer: This is the visionary big picture is produced. With no boundaries, limitations or restraint. The dreamer postion typically uses the visual representation. Ask yourself "What do I really want, in an ideal world" Realist: This is where the plans are organised, and evlauated to determine what is realistic. Think constructively and devise an action plan. Establish time frames and milestomes for progress. Make sure it can be initiated and maintained by the appropiate person or group. Ask Yourself "What will I do to make these plans a reality?" Critic This is where you test the plan, look for problems, difficulties and unintended consequences. Think of what could go wrong, what is missing, what the spins-offs will be. Remember that a critic is someone who should evaluate - not just point out waht is wrong. Ask yourself "What could go wrong?" See Robert Dilts (1994) and his book Strategies of Genius 85 Do Nothing From Mycoted Do Nothing is a technique described by Brian Clegg in his book Crash Course in Creativity. We often make the assumption that something must be done about a particular issue / problem, but what happens if we "do nothing"? Stop and think for a while, either alone or as a group, about the outcomes if nothing were done. This usually leads to one of three possible outcomes; 1. The problem doesn't need to be solved 2. You will have a better idea os the benefits of solving the problem 3. You will have generated some alternative problems to solve 86 Drawing From Mycoted The drawing technique can seem more acceptable than imagery work and freehand expressive drawing often helps to liberate spontaneous thoughts that can’t yet be put into words. Drawings may have meanings that are not consciously realised when drawn; they just ‘feel right’ Drawing to Evoke Personal Insights 1. Setting the frame, spend some time contemplating a problem in a relaxing environment. Ask your intuitive self: ‘what is the current state?’, look for symbols, scenes or images representing your situation, with the certain knowledge that you’re not after a definitive answer right away. 2. Expressing the image, on a large sheet of paper, using a variety of colours draw the images you have visualised. Allow the images to flow in no set direction, as if the images on the paper were directing as to how they want to be seen, try using your ‘opposite’ hand. Defer judgement. 3. Associating with words, for each symbol drawn, write down the first word that comes to mind. Now write a paragraph containing all the words, expanding this as your thoughts and feelings flow freely. Realise these results are impressions of your subconscious, and they can be modified if you feel you want to. Using Drawings to Establish an Evocative Theme for a Meeting Drawings that have been prepared prior to a meeting can be used to provide a focal point or theme. Some time preceding the meeting an elected person(s) creates a thematic image, this is displayed at the meeting beside the agenda and is used to assist in prompting comments about the purpose of the meeting. Recording Ideas on ‘Rich Pictures’ Drawing ideas and displaying them on a wall-chart rather than recording them as a written list is actually how for many of us our thoughts grow naturally. This pictorial outline can be translated into a traditional linear written list at a later date if necessary. 87 Escape Thinking From Mycoted by Dr Robert Polster The purpose of this document is to outline a business workshop technique for generating new ideas. In the course of my work helping large organizations to redesign work processes, I sometimes run workshops to generate ideas. The approach is mainly based on methods and ideas described by Edward de Bono in his book "Serious Creativity". Generally I am dealing with a pragmatic group of business people who may be skeptical of the value of creativity methods, so I begin by explaining the motivation. I explain that we are born without pre-conceived ideas about the world, but that with experience, we come to recognize patterns and categorize the things and situations we see: This is a chair; that is a book; that's a car, this is a fire, etc. With experience, we become able to find a category or pigeonhole into which to put many situations. This is great because it allows us to react rapidly to these situations. Not much time is needed for thought or analysis. The disadvantage is that our thinking becomes limited. If we do not have a pigeonhole into which to put something we are looking at, sometimes just don't see it. We carry many assumptions around in our minds, and these assumptions make us blind to new possibilities. The book "Test Your Lateral Thinking IQ" by Paul Sloan offers several examples of assumption blindness. When the French built the Maginot line after World War I as a defense against the Germans, it was assumed that the next war would be fought the same way as the last war, but with better equipment. They therefore focused on building a strong fortification along the Franco-German border. The German blitzkrieg through Belgium made this defense obsolete. Another example: The first time North American Indians saw a European on horseback, they thought they were seeing a new creature with two heads, two arms, and four legs. Edward de Bono provides an illustration of the tendency to assume that what already exists must remain. He suggests a game in which letters are presented one at a time and the goal is to form a word from these letters. The first letter is A. The second is T, so the word AT is formed. The next letter is R so we form RAT. E arrives, so we form RATE. G is next and we form GRATE. Then a T arrives, and at first most people try to fit it into GRATE, without success. It is only by rejecting the idea that the letters must stay in this order that a person is able to integrate the second T and form TARGET. An industrial example of this is the automobile turn indicator. For forty years, the turn indicator on 88 automobiles was a mechanical arm attached to the side of the vehicle to imitate the way the driver's arm was previously used to signal the turn direction. It remained that way because for a long time no one challenged the assumption that it had to be done that way. When the assumption was finally challenged, the more efficient blinking turn indicator was invented. What we want to do then is to let go of our assumptions for a moment so that we can see if this reveals new possibilities. To break us away from our assumptions, De Bono suggests the creation of provocative statements that suggest new directions for our thinking. For example, he says that to develop a new concept related to restaurants, one might list assumptions about restaurants like: Restaurants serve food; and You pay the bill when you leave. Using the Escape Technique, we then transform these assumptions into provocations. "Restaurants serve food" becomes "Restaurants do NOT serve food." We then use this as a starting point for looking at restaurants in a new way. It might lead to an idea like creating an elegant restaurant-like place that does not serve food but instead rents space to people who want to host a picnic in elegant surroundings and bring in their own food. After explaining all this, I then have the group create a list of assumptions about the business operation they want to improve. From this we randomly select an assumption and apply the Escape technique to create a provocation. They then spend just a few minutes thinking on their own about the provocation, and writing private lists of ideas that occur to them. We then share the ideas and discuss them for the purpose of clarification and producing still more ideas. This process is repeated for as many assumptions as time allows. Following this, we evaluate the usability of the ideas produced. Those that seem interesting but have problems can be examined further. For each of these, we list the problems and then try to develop solutions for each. De Bono also offers a number of other techniques for creating provocations, which are outlined in his book. People in the workshops seem to like this technique. I suspect they like the fact that it is a structured approach that focuses on the problem at hand as opposed to a more scatter-gun brainstorming approach. Starting with what is familiar to them, by listing assumptions about their current situation, eases them into the process and perhaps makes it easier for them to warm up to the approach. 89 Essay Writing From Mycoted Simply try writing an Essay, or short story about the issue can enable the flow of ideas, imagination, speculation etc. since it does not have the same boundaries as a formal report writing method. References Managing Technological Innovation, B. Twiss 90 Estimate-Discuss-Estimate From Mycoted This technique is useful when a good quality united group judgement is required. A balance to maintain constructive discussion and idea contribution whilst at the same time steering away from biasing or destructive group anxiety is the key to success here. Make the assumption that a general discussion has taken place regarding some issue, a point has been reached where the judgement or convergence is required, the estimatediscuss-estimate (Huber and Delbecq, 1972) method now comes into action via the following steps: 1. Estimate, individuals vote privately in any way that feels appropriate to the task in hand and the judgement required, their votes are handed in via a round robin without discussion. Each individual has the opportunity to think through his or her preferences, avoiding the pressures to conform. 2. Discuss, Averages for the group are generated by the computer and displayed. The group then participates in an open discussion of these initial judgements. 3. Estimate, following this discussion group individuals vote again, privately, without discussion. This final vote is average (as in step 2) and used to represent the consensus. ‘Estimate-discuss-estimate’ (see also Delphi Method) is considered more accurate than synthetic groups or surveys, simple interacting groups or Delphi groups where a precise choice is required. A decision body often wants time to reflect and this approach simulates what decision groups often do with planning information. They consider choices as preliminary or open to change, and they anticipate further input on how members feel and the facts they offer. Hastening this process with ‘estimate-discuss-estimate’ procedure often saves the time and frustration of dealing with changes in future meetings. 91 Exaggeration From Mycoted From Osborn’s original checklist, magnify (or ‘stretch’) and minify (or ‘compress’) are two of the idea generating transformations, both of which are forms of exaggeration. The table below shows a selection of exaggerations to illustrate the problem: ‘I need a lot of capacity in my Reprographics Department to cope with a few key peak loads, but this means that for much of the time much of it is idle’. Forms of Exaggeration Type Exaggerate upwards Magnify Exaggerate downwards Minify Exaggerate scope Invade context Exaggerate significance Exaggerate selectively Aggrandise Caricature Examples I have a million photocopiers standing idle My photocopiers are barely used at all The whole organisation is underused Our over-capacity is a nation scandal Reprographics Rest Home! Why does exaggeration appear to work? Because we often have mindsets related to the scale of a problem and whilst there might be a form of action that is acceptable in a crisis it is not in a lesser problem. To test your unspoken assumptions about the scale of the problem, you should think about what would be appropriate if the problem were of a different order of magnitude. Exaggerated solutions can often be applied directly, although the more likely scenario is that you will find they are inappropriate as they stand, but may suggest other ideas that would be acceptable. Similar principles can also be effective when building on ideas for solutions. Imagine you are in search of way to prevent vandalism by youngsters, someone suggests: ‘Keep them in after school’. You could build on this idea by exaggerating it in various ways. E.g. magnify it to ‘Keep them in permanently’ suggesting giving them a permanent role (e.g. school monitor) or minimise it to ‘Gentle restraint after school’ suggesting ideas such as an after school club that they may actually enjoy. Structured Version 1. Define the problem to be addressed or the idea you need to develop 2. Make a list of all the component parts of the idea or if a problem, its objectives and constraints. 3. Choose one component from the list in 2. 4. Develop ways of exaggerating it and note them on a separate sheet. 92 5. Note down all ideas you have from 4. 6. Repeat ad lib from step 3. 93 Excursions From Mycoted Contents 1 General Guidelines 2 Excursion worlds 3 Story Excursions 4 Physical excursions 5 Outside excursions 6 Description excursions General Guidelines Attempt to get as much distance from the problem as possible. Make the excursion about 5-10 minutes. Include some physical activity if the energy level of the group is low. Give the group some rationale for why an excursion might be helpful. If necessary, provide a model or example to help demonstrate it. Excursion worlds The following are just some of the worlds that you can ask people to be a part of. Animals Biology Cartoons Comedy Education Espionage Exploration Famous People Fashion Films History Movies Myths Plants Racing Science Fantasy Sports 007 Acoustics Agriculture Archaeology Computers Crime Farming Finance Games Gardening Health Magic Medicine Models Money Noise Parenting Astronomy Celebrations Chemistry Clothes Cosmetics Dinner Parties Dwellings Economics Electricity Folk Lore Kitchen implements Mathematics Minerals Music Nursing Physics Smells Architecture Art Bridges Cooking Crafts Decoration Geology 94 Theatre Tribal Customs War Religion Space Travel Romance Vacations Science Fiction Woodworking Story Excursions Storyboard excursions are where a story is started, usually by the facilitator, and everyone tries to make the story more ridiculous, and have more twists in it as the story goes on. I prefer to keep the story as visual as possible. Physical excursions These are generally needed for groups of low energy. You can do anything from aerobics to charades (where they have to pick a physical activity). Outside excursions These are where you ask the group to go outside and ask them to focus on something that grabs their attention. They then need to talk about this object when they return. I find it best if they asked lots of questions about life as that object, what its role is, how it feels etc without linking it to the problem. Take everyone though this, possibly taking notes, and then remind them of the problem and the facilitator goes over the comments made whilst they in/out listen to link back to the problem. Description excursions I would group under here all the excursions where you ask people to describe something within their experience, and could include Favourite vacation Favourite activity Favourite place Favourite smell & associations that go with it Most rewarding experience Favourite sound & associations that go with it. Component excursions It is sometimes very effective to get the resources to be various components of the problem. For example, when looking at "How to get a seal around a moving wire" one person could be the wire, another the seal, another gas trying to get through the seal etc. 95 F-R-E-E-Writing From Mycoted F-R-E-E-Writing F-R-E-E stands for Fast, Raw and Exact-but-Easy. F = FAST You write as fast as you can while remaining legible. Keep your hand moving: once you begin writing, you don’t stop until you have completed the time or page space you have allocated to the exercise. You don’t pause to reread what you’ve just written, because that leads to stalling and attempting to control or refine your first thoughts. At first your wrist or hand may be sore but don’t worry about that – just keep going. Your muscles will adjust in a few days. Write as fast as you can until you have completed the allocated time or pages. Let the words flow f-r-e-e. Lose control. R = RAW Writing raw has two meanings. On one hand, because you are writing as fast as you can with the aim of unleashing your unconscious mind, you can forget all about spelling, punctuation etc. This writing is for you; when you read it back you will know what you mean: so forget everything your English teachers ever told you and write as raw as you like. Pay no attention to style or expression, just write the thoughts that arise in your own, everyday language. Don’t cross out or correct or try to edit anything, either as you write or once it is written. Even if you write something you didn’t mean to write, leave it stand. The second meaning of writing raw is to resist any urge to self-censor. From time to time, you will find thoughts rise in you that you don’t want to write, thoughts that feel frightening or silly or disgusting or pathetic. Thoughts you don’t want anybody else to know you ever had. Let them come, raw as they are. Get them out of you. The words you least feel like writing are often those that are most significant. Don’t think, just write. Let the words flow f-r-e-e. Lose control. E-E = EXACT-BUT-EASY What we mean by “exact” is that you should be precise about detail as you write. Not “some fruit” but “a bunch of green grapes”. Not “a man” but “a 35-year-old bricklayer”; 96 not “She sat at her desk, looking sad,” but “She leaned over her desk, the book she had stopped reading discarded, her arms crossed, her head low.” Take the time and the extra few words it takes to be specific. This is also a matter of using the original detail of your own life. Nothing links us to our own lives better than writing down the real and precise details of how things actually are for us: the sights and smells, the tastes and feelings. Everyone’s life is at once both ordinary and extraordinary, trivial and important. The trivial detail is always worthy of record: through it, somehow, we sense our own significance. The challenge is to keep the writing exact-but-easy, specific and precise without stopping to chew our pen over details or slowing down. This sounds contradictory but in fact is much easier in practice than it sounds. Once you give yourself the instruction in advance of your writing session, you find it happens automatically. Don’t chastise yourself as you write for getting it “wrong”: if you write something vague like “flower” and notice it, just put the name of the flower – “a rose” - beside “flower”. Be gentle with yourself. And if you do find yourself in a situation where you have to choose between speed or detail, choose speed: writing fast is the first requirement of F-R-E-E Writing. Take a moment, before you begin a session each time, to instruct yourself to write concrete and specific details. We all have the habit of thinking and writing in abstractions, but lived detail is what we’re after in our F-R-E-E Writing. Let the words flow f-r-e-e. Lose control. Getting Started Sit at a table or desk with your WoW pen and F-R-E-E-Writing Notebook. Sit in stillness and quiet, for two full minutes, letting your breathing become progressively slower and deeper. Let your thoughts rest, waiting to begin this new activity. At the end of the two minutes, take up your pen and begin to write. Whatever form the words take, let them arrive without your direction. Do not reject or censor anything. Neither is there any need to affirm anything you write. Just let it come, without judgement. Do not welcome any thought or image because it is optimistic, or encouraging or “positive” in any way. Similarly, no thought or image should be rejected because it is too “negative” or because it points toward difficulties that may lie ahead. Accept what comes. That’s it. You’ve done your first F-R-E-E Writing session. How did it feel? Were you surprised by anything that emerged? Did it feel strange? 97 If you wish, take a few moments to record your responses. Did you manage to burn through to first thoughts, to where the mind feels and sees, rather than thinks? Perhaps not. Often it takes a few sessions before we feel fully comfortable with the method and some of us (especially those who had good English teachers in school) may find it difficult to let go on the page. We learned too well how to censor ourselves, how to tidy things up so they were nice and neat (and unoriginal and boring). Try not to judge your writing as good or bad. In F-R-E-E Writing terms, writing that is “good” is simply writing that is honest and open but we don’t – can’t – always produce such words. Sometimes we can write what seems like garbage for days and, then, like a flower from compost, something significant emerges. But we don’t work for that. We work only to do it. We know that process of doing it is what counts. So if you are in any way unhappy with what you produced today, in your first F-R-E-E Writing session, forget about it. It doesn’t matter. All that matters is that you did it. And that you will F-R-E-E Write again tomorrow. F-R-E-E-Writing enables you to meet yourself on the page, connecting you to all three levels of your self: Front Self, Deep Self, Beyond Self. F-R-E-E-Writing rights. It improves your psychic state, elevates your mood, makes you feel centred, sets you up for your day. F-R-E-E-Writing sets the movements of your life into perspective and often uncovers hidden meanings and significances F-R-E-E-Writing honours your life, gives it value. F-R-E-E-Writing teaches you to trust your own intuition and your own experience of the world. F-R-E-E-Writing processes your past and can help to heal trauma, pain or unhappiness arising from the past F-R-E-E-Writing separates you from your thoughts and emotions, so you can observe them. By becoming “the watcher” in this way, your feelings and ideas lose some of their power over you. F-R-E-E-Writing increases your awareness of all your relationships, with people, places and things F-R-E-E-Writing gives you the courage to make change: truly allowing all the voices inside you diminishes the power of the critics outside. 98 F-R-E-E-Writing fosters a sense of gratitude and appreciation. It keeps you on the track of what you truly want and keeps you alert to opportunities as they arise in your life, including opportunities for increasing your prosperity, sharing your gifts and making a contribution. It is a creative act that roots you in the moment and shows you when you are going off balance. In short, F-R-E-E Writing grounds you to each of the steppingstones to wealth more information at www.wealthofwomen.com/free_writing.htm 99 Factors in selling ideas From Mycoted When ‘selling’ an idea or new concept to management, it would be prudent to bear in mind the following issues: The Selling Context: Timing, includes large scale issues such as past company experiences with similar ideas, and smaller scale issues such as annual committee cycles, etc. Audience is there a possibility that the audience will be receptive to your suggestions and if so do they have the ability to do anything about it. Idea Champion will be a key person within a group that can actively support sponsorship. The Selling Content: Use simple language, avoiding technical ‘jargon’ that the audience is unfamiliar with Use a clear statement of the need for the idea, providing the necessary facts that originally stimulated this need. Describe the problem you idea will solve and explain why it needs to be solved. Present both the pros and cons of your suggested idea, avoiding one-sided presentations that might distort the idea’s worth. Provide evidence in recommendation of the idea, which shows why the idea will work and why it should be better than another idea. However, do not exaggerate its worth Stress Key points when selling the idea taking care to avoid unnecessary detail. Anticipate questions and develop responses and reactions to them. Be persistent especially if you have faith in this idea, be willing to put in the effort but no matter what, do not become overly antagonistic. 100 False Faces From Mycoted False faces is a Problem Reversal technique by Michael Michalko and is defined in detail in his book Thinkertoys. It originally was known as Assumption Reversals, devloped by Steve Grossman and described by Arthur VanGundy in his book, Techniques of Structured Problem Solving. The process is; 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. State the problem List the assumptions Challenge the fundamental assumption Reverse eash assumption - Write down the opposite for each one. Record differing viewpoints that might proove useful to you Ask how to acomplish each reversal, listing as many viewpoints and ideas as possible. 101 Fishbone Diagram From Mycoted The fishbone diagram (see below) originally developed by Professor Kaoru Ishikawa, is often referred to as an Ishikawa Diagram. The technique can help to structure the process of identifying possible causes of a problem (see also Causal Mapping) The diagram encourages the development of an in depth and objective representation ensuring all participants keep on track. It discourages partial or premature solutions, and shows the relative importance and inter-relationships between different parts of a problem. The method is ideally organized over a number of meetings, enabling the team to become deeply immersed in the problem. Fresh suggestions regarding possible causes can arise during the break and members are more likely to forget who originated every idea, thus making subsequent discussions less inhibited. The procedure is as follows: On a broad sheet of paper, draw a long arrow horizontally across the middle of the page pointing to the right, and label the arrowhead with the title of the issue to be explained. This is the ‘backbone’ of the ‘fish’. 102 Draw spurs coming off the ‘backbone’ at about 45 degrees, one for every likely cause of the problem that the group can think of; and label each at its outer end. Add sub-spurs to represent subsidiary causes. Highlight any causes that appear more than once – they may be significant. The group considers each spur/sub-spur, taking the simplest first, partly for clarity but also because a good simple explanation may make more complex explanations unnecessary. Ideally, it is eventually re-drawn so that position along the backbone reflects the relative importance of the different parts of the problem, with the most important at the head end. Circle anything that seems to be a ‘key’ cause, so you can concentrate on it subsequently. 103 Five Ws and H From Mycoted I keep six honest serving-men: (They taught me all I knew) Their names are What and Where and When And How and Why and Who. From "The Elephant's Child" by Rudyard Kipling Who? Why? What? Where? When? How? The Five W’s and H, are an influential, inspirational and imaginative checklist (often used by journalists). The technique uses basic question generating prompts provided by the English language. The method is useful at any level from a formal checklist to complete informality. For example: Informal ‘back-of-an-envelope’ use, is suitable as a quick-aide checklist, a private checklist to keep in mind when in an on going discussion, quick points scribbled down in a meeting, or to generate further questions. To generate data-gathering questions, during the early stages of problem solving when you are gathering data, the checklist can be useful either as an informal or systematic way of generating lists of question that you can try to find answers for. To generate idea-provoking questions, Whilst brainstorming, brainwriting or some other such similar technique, the checklist could be used as a source of thought provoking questions to help build on existing ideas. To generate criteria, the checklist could help in generating criteria for evaluating options. To check plans, the checklist is a useful tool for planning implementation strategies. However, the ‘question words’ owe their strength to their fundamental place in the English language, and can conceal some of the assets of nature that our language copes less well with. The responses to the questions in the checklist are usually facts, rather than actions or problems. For example, the answer to ‘Who does X?’ could be ‘Janet’. To use this answer in a problem-solving context you may have to take to another level 104 For example ‘OK – if Janet does X, in what way might we make it easier for her. This ‘in what way might’ (IWWM) stage is crucial if the facts are to come alive and contribute to the creative process. See also Dimensional Analysis. 105 Flow charts From Mycoted Flow-Charts revolve around the decision phase they are therefore most appropriate for action planning scenarios where the chain of events is likely to change dynamically as it opens out, see the diagram below which shows the fundamental features of a flow-chart: For illustration a typical application is in research planning diagrams for R&D projects. This is in sharp contrast to critical path diagrams, which have no decision nodes, and so presuppose a pre-planned sequence of events as in recurring, routine-based, situations like house building. There are, of course, many flow-charting and project planning software packages that can assist in constructing action planning flow charts, but simple charts can easily be done by hand (see above). 106 Focus Groups From Mycoted This is a technique similar to 'Using Experts' whereby 'experts' are used to provied ideas and input to a policy group, or similar body. The experts can be either set up from within the company (for example a team from all layers of management to focus on communications issues) or they can be external experts prought in to provide a fresh set of eyes to the problem. 107 Focusing From Mycoted The focusing technique (Gendlin, 1981) does not use conventional visual imagery but a form of imagery work based on body feelings and sensations. The description below is a brief and subtle outline of the process, for a more detailed account of the technique, see Gendlins book. The central act of focusing can be broken down into six phases: 1. Clearing a space, sitting quietly, relax and ask yourself ‘how do I feel?’ ‘What is bothering me especially today?’. Remaining quiet, listen, allowing your thoughts to come through, list all the problems that are stopping you from feeling content at the moment until your hear something inside you say ‘Yes, except for those I’m fine’. 2. Felt sense of the problem, ask yourself which problem is worst at this moment, stand back from the problem and sense how is makes you feel in your body when you think of it as a whole. Ask yourself ‘what does this whole problem feel like?’ don’t answer in words but feel the problem, sensing ‘all that’. When you have felt the whole problem stay with it for a while, just letting it be felt. 3. Finding a handle, what is the quality of the felt sense? Find words and short phrases. You are trying to locate the centre of the felt sense – the crux of all that. When a word or picture image is right, Gendlin calls it a ‘handle’. When you say the words (or you visualise the picture), the whole felt sense stirs calmly and feel a little relief. This is an indication of ‘This is right’, analogous to recalling something you forgot. Let the words and picture come from the feeling. Allow it to label itself. Examples of such words phrases are; o ‘Sticky,’ o ‘Heavy’ o ‘Like in a box’ o ‘Have to perform’ o ‘Scared-tight’ o ‘Jumpy-restless’ 4. Resonating handle and felt sense, using the work or image you got from phase 3, check it against the felt sense. Ask (but don’t answer): ‘is that right?’ You should note a felt response telling you the words are right. However if this feeling of just right is not felt, wait letting more precise words come from the feeling. Should you lose the felt sense, allow it time to return – it may not manifest itself in the same form, which is fine. Allow both sides – the feeling and the words – do whatever they do, until they match just right. 5. Asking, spend some time (up to a minute) with the unclear felt sense, employing the handle to help you to make the felt sense vividly present again and again. Then ask it was it is. For example, if your handle was ‘jumpy’, say ‘jumpy’ to yourself till the felt sense is vividly back, then ask it: ‘What is it about this whole problem that makes me so jumpy?’ Wait. This time is essential to help you sense 108 it (returning again and again to it). It can help to ask: ‘What is the worst of this?’ or ‘what does the felt sense need?’ or ‘what would it take for this to feel OK?’ 6. Receiving, you may find you go through many such cycles before a given problem feels resolved. Whatever comes in focusing, welcome it. Assume that you will be glad your body spoke to you whatever it said, sense that you can leave this place and return to it later and once you know where it is and how to find it you can leave and come back tomorrow. Sense if your body wants to stop focusing for the time being, or to continue for another cycle. 109 Force-Field Analysis From Mycoted Force-field analysis is a technique developed by Kurt Lewin (1890-1947), a pioneer in the field of social sciences, and characterises the conflicting forces in a situation. The recommended approach to this method is to outline the points involved in a problematic situations at the problem exploration stage, followed by recognising factors likely to help or hinder at the action planning and implementation stages. 1. Members of the group identify and list the driving and restraining forces (perhaps using a suitable brainstorming or brainwriting technique) openly discussing their understanding of them. 2. The group leader is representative of the current position as a horizontal line across the middle of the page. The leader will draw all the driving forces as arrows that either pull or push the line upwards, and all the restraining forces as arrows that pull or push the line downwards (see below). Where driving and restraining are paired use arrow thickness to signify strength of impact of a force and arrow length to show how complicated it would be to adapt. It is normally best for the team to reach agreement on these details. 1. The diagram should then be used to find as many possible combinations of moving the centre line in the desired direction. Try to: 1. Find ways to strengthen or add positive forces 2. Find ways to weaken or remove negative forces 3. Recognise that the negative forces are too strong and abandon the idea 110 Force-Fit Game From Mycoted The force-fit game was devised by Helmut Schlicksupp and resembles the BrainWriting Game. As a rule competition is avoided in creativity, it is potentially disruptive and can cause conflict. However, a small amount of pressure can benefit creativity. For the game to be useful a light-hearted frame of mind is essential, with no significant losers. 1. Make up two groups, say A and B, with 2 – 8 individuals in each. The administrator should displays and reads out a problem statement. This is followed by the basic round, which consists of steps 2 – 4. 2. Group A proposes and idea distant to the problem (which the administrator records on a flipchart). 3. Group B spends 2 minutes developing a realistic solution founded on this remote idea (the administrator records the solution on the flip-chart). 4. If Group B’s solution is plausible they gain a point in this round, if not the Group A obtains the point. (This appraisal must be kept light-hearted to avoid creating an atmosphere that is too competitive). 5. Although the groups could alternate roles after every round (steps 2-4), it would be quicker if they swapped every say, 5 rounds, this way Group A can contemplate their next remote idea whilst B are solving their previous one. 6. After a predefined period of time has lapsed (say 30 minutes), or a pre-agreed number of rounds, the game concludes and whichever Group has the most points wins. 7. Afterwards the ideas evaluated and appraised as required. 8. With a well-practiced group, the solution-generating step offers an opening to practice skilful speedy, off-the cuff use of creativity techniques. This games technique could provide a light-hearted warm-up or end-of-day closer when used in ‘real’ non-training settings. Difficulty with acceptability of the ‘game’ ethos, dilemma’s with the identity of individuals within groups and competition within teams limit its use for ‘real’ idea-generation. 111 Free Association From Mycoted Free association contains elements of several other idea-generating techniques and depends on a mental ‘stream of consciousness’ and network of associations of which there are two: Serial association, start with a trigger, you record the flow of ideas that come to mind, each idea triggering the next, ultimately reaching a potentially useful one. Centred association, (which is close to classical brainstorming) prompts you to generate multiple associations to the original trigger so that you ‘delve’ into a particular area of associations. As a rule the serial mode is used to ‘travel’ until you find an idea that you find of some interest, you then engage the centred mode to ‘delve’ more deeply around the interesting item. Once you have exhausted the centred investigation, you being to ‘travel’ again, and so on. Three hints: Suspend judgement. Try not to repress your natural flow of thoughts. Unusual ideas, that may seem ‘off the wall’ are perfectly acceptable, such as: Rude ideas ‘Not you’ ‘Silly’ ‘Taboo’ ‘Unethical’ ‘Tactless’ ‘Politically incorrect’ They are acceptable because they are thoughts you generally suppress; they could be an alternative starting point promoting all sorts of possibilities. Undoubtedly and ‘open’ 112 strategy requires a ‘safe’ environment where the use of a variety of material is fully recognised and understood. Friendly laughter can be a breathtaking cure for any passing awkwardness that free-expression may cause! Follow the intriguing and look for ideas that attract your attention as particularly strong, intriguing, surprising, etc. even if they don’t seem instantly appropriate to your problem. This attraction frequently signals links to a useful set of associations, and so could possibly justify a further phase of centred free association around the ‘attractive’ idea. Use solution-oriented phrasing. The idea ‘blue’ is not much use as it stands. However, when transformed into a phrases such as: ‘Could we colour it blue?’ ‘In what ways might I make it ‘blue?’ ‘I wish it were ‘bluer’ ‘How might it help it if were bluer’?’ Makes the idea ‘blue’ potentially a more useful one. 113 F-R-E-E-Writing From Mycoted F-R-E-E-Writing F-R-E-E stands for Fast, Raw and Exact-but-Easy. F = FAST You write as fast as you can while remaining legible. Keep your hand moving: once you begin writing, you don’t stop until you have completed the time or page space you have allocated to the exercise. You don’t pause to reread what you’ve just written, because that leads to stalling and attempting to control or refine your first thoughts. At first your wrist or hand may be sore but don’t worry about that – just keep going. Your muscles will adjust in a few days. Write as fast as you can until you have completed the allocated time or pages. Let the words flow f-r-e-e. Lose control. R = RAW Writing raw has two meanings. On one hand, because you are writing as fast as you can with the aim of unleashing your unconscious mind, you can forget all about spelling, punctuation etc. This writing is for you; when you read it back you will know what you mean: so forget everything your English teachers ever told you and write as raw as you like. Pay no attention to style or expression, just write the thoughts that arise in your own, everyday language. Don’t cross out or correct or try to edit anything, either as you write or once it is written. Even if you write something you didn’t mean to write, leave it stand. The second meaning of writing raw is to resist any urge to self-censor. From time to time, you will find thoughts rise in you that you don’t want to write, thoughts that feel frightening or silly or disgusting or pathetic. Thoughts you don’t want anybody else to know you ever had. Let them come, raw as they are. Get them out of you. The words you least feel like writing are often those that are most significant. Don’t think, just write. Let the words flow f-r-e-e. Lose control. E-E = EXACT-BUT-EASY What we mean by “exact” is that you should be precise about detail as you write. Not “some fruit” but “a bunch of green grapes”. Not “a man” but “a 35-year-old bricklayer”; 114 not “She sat at her desk, looking sad,” but “She leaned over her desk, the book she had stopped reading discarded, her arms crossed, her head low.” Take the time and the extra few words it takes to be specific. This is also a matter of using the original detail of your own life. Nothing links us to our own lives better than writing down the real and precise details of how things actually are for us: the sights and smells, the tastes and feelings. Everyone’s life is at once both ordinary and extraordinary, trivial and important. The trivial detail is always worthy of record: through it, somehow, we sense our own significance. The challenge is to keep the writing exact-but-easy, specific and precise without stopping to chew our pen over details or slowing down. This sounds contradictory but in fact is much easier in practice than it sounds. Once you give yourself the instruction in advance of your writing session, you find it happens automatically. Don’t chastise yourself as you write for getting it “wrong”: if you write something vague like “flower” and notice it, just put the name of the flower – “a rose” - beside “flower”. Be gentle with yourself. And if you do find yourself in a situation where you have to choose between speed or detail, choose speed: writing fast is the first requirement of F-R-E-E Writing. Take a moment, before you begin a session each time, to instruct yourself to write concrete and specific details. We all have the habit of thinking and writing in abstractions, but lived detail is what we’re after in our F-R-E-E Writing. Let the words flow f-r-e-e. Lose control. Getting Started Sit at a table or desk with your WoW pen and F-R-E-E-Writing Notebook. Sit in stillness and quiet, for two full minutes, letting your breathing become progressively slower and deeper. Let your thoughts rest, waiting to begin this new activity. At the end of the two minutes, take up your pen and begin to write. Whatever form the words take, let them arrive without your direction. Do not reject or censor anything. Neither is there any need to affirm anything you write. Just let it come, without judgement. Do not welcome any thought or image because it is optimistic, or encouraging or “positive” in any way. Similarly, no thought or image should be rejected because it is too “negative” or because it points toward difficulties that may lie ahead. Accept what comes. That’s it. You’ve done your first F-R-E-E Writing session. How did it feel? Were you surprised by anything that emerged? Did it feel strange? 115 If you wish, take a few moments to record your responses. Did you manage to burn through to first thoughts, to where the mind feels and sees, rather than thinks? Perhaps not. Often it takes a few sessions before we feel fully comfortable with the method and some of us (especially those who had good English teachers in school) may find it difficult to let go on the page. We learned too well how to censor ourselves, how to tidy things up so they were nice and neat (and unoriginal and boring). Try not to judge your writing as good or bad. In F-R-E-E Writing terms, writing that is “good” is simply writing that is honest and open but we don’t – can’t – always produce such words. Sometimes we can write what seems like garbage for days and, then, like a flower from compost, something significant emerges. But we don’t work for that. We work only to do it. We know that process of doing it is what counts. So if you are in any way unhappy with what you produced today, in your first F-R-E-E Writing session, forget about it. It doesn’t matter. All that matters is that you did it. And that you will F-R-E-E Write again tomorrow. F-R-E-E-Writing enables you to meet yourself on the page, connecting you to all three levels of your self: Front Self, Deep Self, Beyond Self. F-R-E-E-Writing rights. It improves your psychic state, elevates your mood, makes you feel centred, sets you up for your day. F-R-E-E-Writing sets the movements of your life into perspective and often uncovers hidden meanings and significances F-R-E-E-Writing honours your life, gives it value. F-R-E-E-Writing teaches you to trust your own intuition and your own experience of the world. F-R-E-E-Writing processes your past and can help to heal trauma, pain or unhappiness arising from the past F-R-E-E-Writing separates you from your thoughts and emotions, so you can observe them. By becoming “the watcher” in this way, your feelings and ideas lose some of their power over you. F-R-E-E-Writing increases your awareness of all your relationships, with people, places and things F-R-E-E-Writing gives you the courage to make change: truly allowing all the voices inside you diminishes the power of the critics outside. 116 F-R-E-E-Writing fosters a sense of gratitude and appreciation. It keeps you on the track of what you truly want and keeps you alert to opportunities as they arise in your life, including opportunities for increasing your prosperity, sharing your gifts and making a contribution. It is a creative act that roots you in the moment and shows you when you are going off balance. In short, F-R-E-E Writing grounds you to each of the steppingstones to wealth more information at www.wealthofwomen.com/free_writing.htm 117 Fresh eye From Mycoted The ‘fresh eye’ technique looks directly to ‘outsiders’ who are not so affected by the ‘tunnel vision’ that can be experienced by practicing problem solvers. Basic Model 1. Write down your problem simply, clearly and in a non-technical format 2. Show it to people who have no direct experience of the problem and invite ideas and opinions. Recommend that they think about the problem for a few days, write down any ideas and thoughts they have about what they see as the ‘real’ problem and any potential solutions. It is essential that their expectations of your ability to use their ideas are realistic (see Step 4). 3. Develop or re-interpret the ideas so that they become workable. You should anticipate the idea may be technically naive, but nevertheless still be creatively thought provoking. 4. Provide responsive feedback to the helper to show their contributions are appreciated, valued and of productive use. If your helper feels undervalued, further help towards yourself will not be forthcoming. Equally if your helper receives feedback of how their ideas were put to use they will be only too glad to help again. Face-to-face Networking Model The basic model is only workable if you are certain that your relationship with the helper is one of trust, i.e. that your helper accepts that when he offers ‘naive’ ideas they are of actual help to you. One approach in handling this would be to raise it conversationally at an informal face-to-face meeting (e.g. over a drink in the pub, at the ‘golf club’, etc.) Should you decide to take this ‘personal’ approach it is essential to have: Good non-directive listening skills, so that you maintain your helper’s interest and enthusiasm. Show that you really value what they are saying. Keep them broadly ‘on topic’, but at the same time minimise your influence on the content of what they say. Managers often maintain networks of contacts, with whom they have built up long-term relationships founded on the exchange of favours in this and other ways. Clearly there are significant costs of time and effort in sustaining such a network, but the mutual obligations and understanding built up over time mean that contacts are likely to be much more productive. 118 Gallery method From Mycoted The Gallery method is a mixture of physical and mental activity whilst generating ideas. The participants move past the ideas (as in an art gallery) rather than the ideas moving past the participants (as in the Pin-Card Technique ). The down side of this method, no anonymity is offered for idea generation and there is a risk of competition between participants during the break and view 1. Position flip chart paper round the room, with the problem statement displayed so everyone can see it (groups should be between 5-7 people). The statement should be discussed briefly for clarification. 2. Each group member chooses a sheet and privately writes ideas onto it (they can write directly onto the sheets, or on post-its and stick these on the flip-charts). The writing should be large, clear and concise to enable other to read it easily. 3. When the group appears to be running low on ideas, they should be encouraged to take a break, walk around the room viewing ideas on the other flip charts and making notes. All participants should have the break at the same time, so that certain members of the groups do not feel that others are looking over their shoulder whilst they are still generating ideas. 4. Participants return to their own work areas and continue generating their own ideas or building on the ideas of others. 5. When the group appears to be running low on ideas again, repeat steps 3 and 4 or else close the idea-generating phase. Ideas are then pooled together, sorted, classified, etc… as you require. 119 Gap Analysis From Mycoted Gap analysis is a methodical investigation throughout the whole area of a given technology for ‘gaps’. Thus highlighting inadequate areas in existing technology that are open to speculation with a view improvement. For example a study for the analysis of transportation technology, using the aspects: Speed Maximum range Demand Three areas well served by existing improvement are: Pedestrian Motorcar Aircraft However, between these exist three gaps (between pedestrian and car, car and aircraft, and beyond the aircraft range) in which consumers considered existing means of transport less satisfactory. Between walking and car travel, for instance, there are many forms of transport available: Bus Motor scooter Bicycle Underground train None of these realize the need perceived by town planners for a mass transport system, possibly continuous, operating at a speed of about five times the walking rate, for distances of between half a mile and three miles. Between motor transport and conventional aircraft, there are helicopters, short-take-off aircraft and hover-trains, but all need improvement. Finally, supersonic aircraft for distances greater than 700 miles are still not easily accessible. These gaps are representative of areas where creative input in a descending order of demand is an option (the requirement of a mass transport system traveling at 20 miles per hour is a lot greater than a requirement for supersonic transport in terms of the numbers who wish to travel at these speeds). 120 Goal Orientation From Mycoted Goal orientation, described by Rickards (1974) and VanGundy (1981; 1988) is a basic logical checklist for problem statements. For a more involved set of logical criteria, see the CATWOE checklist. For a more inventive-based checklist see Multiple Redefinition The procedure is as follows: 1. Describe the problem by writing down a general description but in as much detail as possible 2. List the needs implied by the problem, by outlining what you are trying to achieve 3. List the inherent difficulties that are preventing you from achieving your goal. E.g. if I am chopping down a tree, the hardness of its wood is an inherent difficulty because anyone chopping down that tree would have to deal with it. 4. List the external constraints that apply to this problem at this time e.g. I have promised to finish chopping down the tree for the owner by lunchtime today, is an external constraint because it is specific to this occasion. 5. Now write a clear problem statement that illustrates all these requirements, restrictions and hindrances. ‘Inherent difficulties’ and ‘External constraints’ are listed separately because the options for dealing with these two types of problem are likely to be very different: the options for solving tree-hardness are clearly of a very different kind from the option for dealing with my ‘finish on time’ promise. 121 Greetings Cards From Mycoted Prior to introducing a group to a problem the Greeting card method invites the group to create their own stimulating problem solving environment. A sense of comradeship is thus introduced and a feeling of ownership and involvement in the problem solving is experienced. This technique was created by James Pickens in 1981 and described by Arthur VanGundy in the first edition of his book, Techniques of Structured Problem Solving. Developing the environment 1. The supervisor encourages the participants to produce some motivational objects that will be of use in problem solving. 2. Split the main group into sub-groups of 4-5 individuals equipped with paste, scissors, magazines, illustrated catalogues, thick A3 or A4 paper, and felt-tipped pens. 3. Members of the sub-group browse their catalogues and magazines, cutting out at least 10 pictures of interest and relevance. 4. Together or individually the sub-group member create several greetings cards (or ‘stimulus cards’) sticking pictures, collage-style on A3 or A4 sheets that are folded thus that they function as greetings cards. They then add their own ‘greetings-card’ style message. 5. Each sub-group displays their greeting cards to other sub-groups. Using it in problem-solving 1. A problem is put on view and deliberated by the sub-group members. 2. Participants use the images on their cards to generate ideas to decipher the problem 3. Time permitting, each sub-group passes its cards to the next sub-group and repeats step 2. This can be done several times if necessary. 4. All the ideas are gathered and appraised in any appropriate way. 5. It is essential participants are not aware the nature of the problem prior to the problem solving session. If participants feel uneasy about the ‘childish’ activity of making greetings cards, portray it as ‘assembling stimulus objects’. 122 Help-Hinder From Mycoted The Help, hinder method is a fairly simplistic procedure and comparable to Bullet Proofing, Potential Problem Analysis, Negative Brainstorming, and Stakeholder Analysis. A participant from each group identifies a few people (‘Who/’) and things (‘What?’) that they feel might help and hinder the client implementing his plan and note these on a table like the one below. It is essential that you pay attention to the hindrances. Helps Analysing the context Action planning Hinders Who? What Where? When? How? The client can then emphasise what they feel are the most crucial factors ‘helping’ or ‘hindering’ their plan. It is possible that items may occur on both sides, e.g. a senior may be helpful if on your side, but a serious hindrance if otherwise. The group now concentrate on how to enable the client to take on the support of the key ‘helping’ people and things. More importantly come up with ways to get round those that will ‘hinder’ and are liable to prevent the scheme achieving completion. The group are now in a position to outline a specific plan (keeping number 4 in mind), indicating dates and times allocated to each sequence in the plan. Finally the group reveal the plan to the client, to check if it is satisfactory and if the client will commit to it. If not, the group is required to identify the aspects they have omitted, and need to the take the problem-solving process through a further series of cycles. 123 Heuristic Ideation Technique From Mycoted Heuristic ideation technique (HIT) is an alternative variation to e.g., Attribute Listing, Morphological Analysis, Listing, developed by Edward Tauber and described by Arthur VanGundy in Techniques of Structured Problem Solving, for initial developments (although it could be used in other areas). The procedure is as follows: Choose two items of interest that already exist, e.g. if I sell novelty goods, I might select a particular china mug with a floral decoration on it, and a particular novelty greetings card. Make a list of each component, e.g. the components of the mug may include: handle, square shape, coloured china, floral decoration, coffee sized, etc. The cards components might include: glitter decoration, poetic message, can be sent by post, etc. Construct a matrix, where the rows list the components of the one product the columns list the components of the other, and each cell corresponds to a combination of one element from each product. &nbsp Mug Floral design Coloured design Coffee sized Square shape Card Glitter decoration Poetic message Mug, glitter Mug, poetic Mug, card decoration message Floral Floral design, Floral design, design, card glitter decoration poetic message Coloured Coloured Coloured design, design, poetic design, card glitter decoration message Coffee sized, Coffee sized, Coffee sized, card glitter decoration poetic message Square Square shape, Square shape, shape, card glitter decoration poetic message Sent by post Mug, sent by post Floral design, sent by post Coloured design, sent by post Coffee sized, sent by post Square shape, sent by post Cross out for elimination any cells that correspond to existing products, e.g. ‘floral design, sent by post’. Identify any cells that have market potential as they stand e.g. ‘coffee sized mug, can be sent by post’, ideal for gift packaged product. Looking at the table from another angle, try to identify any cells that look creatively thought provoking, but in need every more work. Develop the highlighted cells into workable ideas. HIT comes from its use of the 3 ‘rules of thumb’: o That new ideas are usually combinations of elements of existing ideas; o That the core of many new product ideas can often be captured by a twoelement combination; 124 o That combination of dissimilar items (‘chalk/cheese’) work better than similar items (‘chalk/limestone’). 125 Hexagon Modelling From Mycoted Hexagon Modelling complements Mind Mapping and de Bono approaches and has tended to be used in the practical world of business brainstorming, strategy development and planning. The initial phase is to write down individual ideas / solutions onto separate hexagons The Hexagons are then clustered into groups / issues. These are often called "Issue Maps". The Issue Map sill often demonstrate the inter-relationships between the issues, and can then be used to create an Influence Map. In addition, the hexagons can be used to encourage lateral thinking, where 2 hexagons are touching, there is a question of what would fit into the interconnecting space, also touching these two hexagons. External links Hexagons for systems thinking by Anthony M Hodgson Commercial Hexagon Modelling Software Idon Resources creativethinkersoftware 126 Highlighting From Mycoted Highlighting is a straightforward and vigorous technique, which can be put into place with little training and capable of capturing attention and participation. Ideas are screened, the best of which are short-listed triggering discussion. There are noticeable similarities to the KJ-Method and the Snowball Technique, with the use of clustering. However, there is an important difference in that clusters are only created from items that are felt to be interesting or intriguing, so that the clusters identify ‘hotspots’ – groups of related ideas that have ‘connected’ with someone’s imagination. Other clustering techniques tend to emphasise logical categorisation rather than strength of ‘association’. Starting from a large list of ideas (e.g. from BrainStorming) 1. Draw out ideas that seem intriguing or interesting (regardless of viability) 2. Sort into clusters of related ideas, each cluster being a ‘hotspot’. 3. Recognise the ‘hotspots’ that mean something to you, does it have any ‘associations’, perhaps it has unusual consequences or implications? 4. The final solution is the ‘hotspot’, or combination of several ‘hotspots’, that best suit your needs. 127 Idea Advocate From Mycoted Idea advocate is a simplified form of the dialectical approach and was developed by the Battelle Institute in Frankfurt, Germany. The method has an Idea Champion to offer continual support and enthusiasm for a project in the development stage. Assume that the group of original ideas for solving some issue has already been concentrated to a small number, say 3 – 6 of strong contenders: 1. A participant (the ‘idea advocate’) is allocated to each idea to present a case for that idea. Someone already familiar with the idea, or who initiated it, or who would have to implement it would be ideal choice. 2. If required the ‘idea advocate’ is permitted a set amount of research time to prepare their case. 3. Ideas advocates then make presentations of their assigned cases to the relevant decision makers and other idea advocates. 4. Each case is then discussed and decisions made. If a particular case was illuminating then a straightforward selection can be made, however, if there are several strong cases several rounds of elimination will take place. 5. Ensuring there are no differences in power and status amongst the idea advocates is essential. The more sophisticated approach outlined in Dialectical approaches handle the balance between positive and negative evaluation better. 128 Idea Box From Mycoted Idea Box is a Morphological Analysis technique originally developed by Zwicky and variations described by Arthur VanGundy and Michael Michalko and is defined in detail in his book Thinkertoys and VanGundy's book, Techniques of Structured Problem Solving. The process is; 1. State the problem 2. List the parameters of the issue o across the top of the page 3. List variations o for each parameter, in a column below it 4. Try different combinations o pick out combinations, one from each column, and look at it as a possible solution 129 Ideal Final Result From Mycoted Ideal Final Result (IFR) is an description of the best possible solution for the problem situation (or contradiction), regardless of the resources or constraints of the original problem. IFR is one of the basics terms in TRIZ, a problem solving methodology. Well defined IFR helps problem solver to overcome psychological inertia and reach breakthrough solutions by thinking about the solution in terms of functions, not the intervening problems or needed resources. It focuses on functions needed, not the current process or equipment. The idea of formulating the IFR is to clearly define the goal of improvement and eliminate rework (solve the right problem from the same beginning!). A basic concept of TRIZ is that systems evolve towards increased ideality (functionality), where the extreme result of this evolution is the Ideal Final Result: It has all the benefits, none of the harm, and none of the costs of the original problem. The ideal system is pure function, because: occupies no space, has no weight, requires no labor, requires no maintenance, delivers benefit without harm. The Ideal Final Result also is step in ARIZ. References The Ideal Final Result: Tutorial by Ellen Domb, Ph.D. Brain, Computer and the Ideal Final Result By Kalevi Rantanen Wikipedia definition of IFR 130 Imagery Manipulation From Mycoted Imagery manipulation is employed in a psychotherapeutic context and requires skilled helpers or should be carried out under supervision. The technique does not utilize the usual rational framework (Explore problem, Generate ideas, Select and Implement) that is fundamental to most problem solving methods. It is unnecessary for the helper to be made aware of the real nature of the original situation or the final solution, in fact any efforts by the client to introduce ‘reality’ will hinder success. Dissimilar to guides imagery activities, (Imagery for Answering Questions there is no preliminary relaxation phase required, and the exploration of the imagery is performed in a mater-of-fact way with both the helper and client in ‘adult’ mode, capable of critical judgement. The helper asks questions and suggests answers, while the client views the current state of images and attempts his own answers. A client should be supported to reject or undo inappropriate suggestions they should feel a sense of responsibility for the management of their own imagery. The technique follows these 5 steps: 1. Identify elements. In private the client should recognise their problem area and within that area identify say 3 – 6 key elements. 2. Form symbols. Still working alone the client should give each of the identified key elements from 1, a symbol. The symbol can be visual, auditory, feeling etc, e.g. a new project may have the symbol of a tree, and an irritating colleague might be a squeaking door and so on. The Helper is aware of the symbols produced but not the source situation or elements. 3. Describe image. The client is asked to form a mental image of the assembly of symbols and describe it to the helper. E.g. the green tree is in the background, and I can hear the squeaking door on my right. 4. Joint exploration of image. The helper and client then investigate and expand this image. It often becomes apparent that the imagery drama is unfolding with a direction of its own and that it requires some further intervention with useful tactics such as: o Looking at thing from different perspectives o Moving the symbols about relative to one another, rotate them. o Filling in the picture (e.g. adding detail, adding more elements, extending it, exploring behind it). o Research possible transformations – what it might change into o Anchoring resources o Investigating other routes of intervention 5. Moving towards resolution and closure. There comes a time when there is a natural sense of closure a ‘break point’. This may manifest itself in the pleasure and contentment clearly noticeable in the client by the helper. Alternatively a 131 plateau may be reached whereby an intermediate resting point feels natural, with more to do at a later date. The process normally takes less than an hour. 132 Imagery for Answering Questions From Mycoted This technique draws on your own intuition for help, similar to prayer or meditation. However, there is a structure as follows: 1. If your preference is to tape-record the script below rather than working from memory, read it slowly with plenty of pauses. 2. Define your question, clarifying its exact meaning to yourself 3. Go through any standard Relaxation process. 4. When you feel ready, recall your question (from 2), making yourself fully aware of it. 5. Placing the question aside, let a fantasy on the lines of the script below materialise. Script Envisage yourself at the shore of a large body of water. [Pause] There is a small rowing boat bobbing gently close by. Step into it and settle down comfortably. Let it go with the flow. Listen to the lapping water. Sense the mild air and calm movement as you float slowly, serenely along. [Pause] The lighter seems to be dimming and you notice that you have drifted into a kind of large underground channel. There is ample of space for you and your boat. It becomes shadowy and darker as you go into the channel, but the movement of the water continues. You drift along – gently and undisturbed. [Pause] You see a light approaching in the distance. Your boat is carried gently towards it. It seems brighter and brighter as you get nearer until you emerge in luminous sunshine, on a gently moving stream in a beautiful, quiet meadow. After a while, the boat comes to a stop. Step out onto the grass. Look around. Allow yourself to be quiet and still. [Pause] Someone or something will bring you a gift that has meaning for you – perhaps a message or an object or an image… wait for it to come… it may or may not make 133 sense… don’t worry. Trust that it will help. Take whatever time it needs for this gift to come to you. [Pause] When you have received it, take your leave and get back in the boat. You notice that it has a motor, so you turn it on and can travel swiftly. [Pause] Soon you find yourself back at the shore where you started. Step out of the boat. Onto the dry land again taking your gift with you. 134 Imaginary Brainstorming From Mycoted Imaginary Brainstorming is like Classic Brainstorming, but with a slight twist. The ground rules etc. are the same, the differences are; When defining the problem make sure that it has o a subject - who is acting o a verb - the action o an object - who / what is being acted upon. Perform a ((classic brainstorming)) session Define the essential elements of the problem, and identify which of the elements above (1) is the most directly tied to a successful solution. Propose imaginary replacements for the other elements. e.g. Original problem How do Suggested replacements How do / does we Children, The PM, Donald Duck, Teachers write a bid Build a house, Earn a Million, get drunk in half the normal time? in half the normal time? (This element is kept as the essential element.) Formulate a new problem statement, substituting one of the imaginary elements. Brainstorm ideas for the imaginary problem Apply ideas from the imaginary brainstorming back to the real problem statement. Analyse all of the ideas (real, imaginary and combined) and take forward those of most interest. 135 Implementation Checklists From Mycoted There are two implementation checklists presented here, the first by VanGundy and the 2nd by Isaksen, Dorval and Treffinger. Each has subtle differences in their perspectives. Implementation Checklist 1 ( VanGundy, 1988) Resources are the resources (time, personnel, equipment, money, information) sufficient for executing this idea? Motivation, are there others with equal motivation and commitment required for successful implementation? Resistance, is the idea likely to come across any ‘closed thinking’ and/or resistance to change in general? Procedures, are there any procedural complications to get over Structures, are there any structural obstacles to surmount (e.g. bad communication channels)? Policies, What official/unofficial policies need to be overcome? Risk, will risk taking be tolerated by those responsible for implementation and if so to what level? Power, do any power struggles exist relating to the idea that might obstruct implementation? Clashes, are there any clashes of personalities that may hinder advancement in the implementation? Climate, is the organisational environment one of teamwork and co-operation or suspicion and distrust? Implementation checklist 2 (Isaken, Dorval and Treffinger, 1994) Relative advantage o Will the plan obviously progress what is currently in place? o What are the advantages/benefits in accommodating it? o Who will gain from it? o How will implementing it reward others or me? o How can you promote its benefits to all? Compatibility o Is it consistent with current practice/thinking? o Can it be demonstrated to meet a particular groups requirement? o Is it a better course of action to an existing shared goal o What group(s) would support it, its objectives and actions? o Can it be named/put together more constructively Complexity o Is it straightforward to understand? o Can it be clearly translated to different people? 136 o o o Does it take long to communicate to others? How might it be illuminated, made simpler, easier to understand? Can I demonstrate the new idea/object effortlessly? Trialability o How can you reduce ambiguity concerning the ideas new elements? o How can the adopter try out section, before deciding to use it all? o How can you persuade adopters to try part of it? o Should it require full adoption, but partial trials are insisted upon, what then? o How can you alter it to make it more simplistic for trial? Observability o How easy is it for an adopter to locate/acquire it? Is it visible? o Can it be made more visible? How? o Is it possible to make it easier to understand? o Can it be better communicated? o Are there reasons for not making it visible now? Other questions to help gain acceptance for you Plan o What other resources could help? How best to use them? o What important obstructions are there? How can they be surmounted? o How to deal with challenges/opportunities it creates? o What might initiate action? … and the next steps? o How to build feedback into it to allow for potential improvements? 137 Improved Nominal Group Technique From Mycoted Improved Nominal Group Technique is a extension of Nominal Group Technique with an additional pre-meeting stage which ensures full anonymity of contributions and speeds up transcription phases. Advance Preparation 1. Clarify the purpose of meeting with a prior problem recognition meeting, with anonymous input 2. Circulate the agreed purpose of the meeting and request anonymously submitted ideas on cards by a well-defined cut off time. 3. Circulate a numbered word for word list of the ideas submitted and request those participating bring to the meeting any additional ideas (on cards) or proposals for varying or combining ideas. Explain fully what structure the meeting have. The Meeting 1. Explain how the meeting will proceed and ensure all participants have a precirculated list of ideas 2. Collect anonymously any further ideas brought to the meeting and add to existing set. Place all cards face down (those with no ideas submitting a blank card) and shuffle. List all ideas on a Flip Chart. 3. Participants write yet more ideas privately, again on cards. Adaptation or amalgamated of items may be proposed, but only permitted if all agree – no discussion. 4. Every few minutes, the leader gathers ideas anonymously and lists them as described earlier. Writing continues whilst the leader records the information from the cards onto the Flip chart. Repetition of the writing/gathering rotation is maintained pending all the gathered cards being blank 5. Go through the full list of items, inviting observations on each one within agreed time limits. Participants may consider giving an explanation, or present a view for or against any item, however debating is not permitted. Authorship remains anonymous and rules for adaptation or amalgamation of items as per step 3 above continue throughout. Addition of items suggested by the discussion is acceptable. 6. Private voting takes place and participants list on a card the item numbers of their top X items and ranks them in preferential order. If you are trying to identify problems, X can be larger (e.g. 15% of the number of items). If you are trying to discover a solution it could be smaller (e.g. 3-5 items). Votes are tallied on a Flip chart once the cards are returned face down and shuffled. Further categorisation and voting may be needed, depending on circumstances. 138 Interpretive structural modeling From Mycoted Presume that you have a compilation of say 20 – 50 matters concerning some of the following: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Issues Ideas Objectives Options SWOT elements (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats) (see SWOT Analysis ) It is assumed these concerns have cropped up in a problem-solving activity, and you would like a group of people to reach an agreement with respect to ordering them in terms of some property such as: Causality Importance Priority Severity Precedence Alternative approaches to the above problem are Paired Comparison and Q-Sort. Interpretive structural modeling (ISM) (Warfield, 1982), is an adaptation of Paired Comparison, usually computer aided and capable of managing group input. In theory each group member should be able to obtain every possible pair of items, and asked to state, which is prior (in terms of importance, severity, etc.). Each pair then ends up with a score showing what percentage of group member put them in a particular order, giving a comparative ordering of all the items. Computer support is usually required because the number of possible pairing goes up as the square of the number of items. ISM has been used to assist local government bodies to prioritise large number of activities in circumstances of sever cutbacks. Activities were all listed, and then each decision-maker was asked to compare pairs of activity in rotation and to suggest which of each pair was the higher priority. A computer then summarised the large number of pair comparison it asked for to produce a network illustration that demonstrated all the activities that had been compared, linked by arrows that have the meaning ‘A has a minimally higher priority than B’. When used for prioritisation, the objective is a single rank order, but ISM can also be employed to create networks, e.g. of causal relations. In this case, the comparison question might be: ‘Does A influence B or vice versa?’. 139 KJ-Method From Mycoted The KJ-Method is fundamentally similar to the Snowball Technique. Introduced by the Japanese, it has become one of the ‘Seven management (New) tools’ of modern Japanese quality management and uses values of Buddhism intended as structured meditation. The Basic Cycle, similar to mind-mapping, except it uses nested clusters rather than a tree structure 1. Card making: all relevant facts and information are written on individual cards and collated (Post-its would do). In a group-work version, this step could be adapted to use BrainStorming or Constrained Brainwriting, to generate a supply of ideas on cards. The KJ-Method tends to place emphasis on the ideas being relevant, verifiable and important. 2. Grouping and naming: The cards are shuffled, spread out and read carefully. Cards that look as though they belong together should be grouped, ignoring any ‘oddities’. For each group write an apt title and place it on top of its group of cards. Repeat the group making, using new titles and any ‘oddities’ to create higher-level groups. If you have more than about 10 groups, repeat this iterative process at yet higher levels. 3. Redistribution: At this stage in the group-work version, the cards are collected and reallocated in order than no one is given their own cards. One card is read out, and all contributors look through the cards in their own ‘hand’ of cards, and find any that seem to go with the one read out, so building a ‘group’. A name is selected for the set that clearly portrays the contents of the cards in the set, but is neither too broad nor a simple aggregation of the cards in the group 4. Chart making: Now that you have less than 10 groups, some of which may contain sub-groups, sub-sub-groups, etc arrange them carefully on a large sheet of paper in a spatial pattern that helps you to appreciate the overall picture. 5. Explanation: Now try to express what the chart means to you, writing notes as you go and being careful to differentiate personal interpretations from the facts contained in the chart. Ideas for the solution are often developed whilst explaining the structure of the problem. Multiple Cycles, The basic cycle can be used to build up a problem-solving method through repetition. A simple two-cycle version will do it once for problem definition and once for problem solution. 140 A more complex six cycle version will do it for: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Problem identification Defining the circumstances Diagnosis and problem-formulation Solutions and working hypotheses Activation of solutions Programmed application of solutions. 141 Keeping a Dream Diary From Mycoted To experience creative dreaming it is essential to come into better contact with your dreams. Psychologists have revealed that each of us dreams every night. However and unfortunately most of our dreams are forgotten. Thus, keeping a dream diary is helping in retaining the information longer. The building of the dream diary will demonstrate over a period of time, that you recall more and more of your dreams by being more aware of them. Regular discussion of your dreams and diaries will also help in understanding them, any themes running through them and unconscious ideas. 1. Before falling asleep, go over the following several times: ‘Tonight I dream; when I awake I will remember my dreams’ 2. On awakening in the morning, lie quietly, do not open your eyes, and let you mind dwell on your initial thoughts. These initial thoughts could remind you of your last dream prior to awakening and with practice allow you to remember more and more of the dreams details. 3. A notebook is essential alongside your bed, to record a diary of your dreams. You could try sketching your dreams or use a tape-recorder to record middle of the night dreams. The following morning these tapes could be translated into the dream diary. 4. Essential, keep the daily diary, try not to miss days out. 142 Kepner and Tregoe method From Mycoted This technique emphasises the ‘rational’ rather than the ‘creative’, it is essentially a method for fault diagnosis and repair rather than for disorganized or systemic problem domains, or those where freshness of vision is essential. Kepner and Tregoe (1981) describe the method below, but its origins date from the 1950’s. The method is fully developed, with recommended techniques, worksheets, training programme's, etc. The headings below provide a bare outline and it follows two main stages, each has seven steps: Problem Analysis 1. You should know what ought be happening and what is happening, this can then be expressed as a deviation, comparing them and recognising a difference that seems important to you. 2. Ascertain provisional problem priorities (how urgent/serious or likely to become so) and pick a problem to work on. Break down unhelpful problem categories (e.g. ‘communication problems’). If the cause is immediately apparent you can pass straight to Decision Making (below). 3. Investigate and identify the problem deviation (what, where, when, and to what extent). 4. Identify features that distinguish what the problem is from what it is not. 5. Identify the potential cause(s) or contributory factors of the problem, these should be clear-cut events or changes that lead to the problem and are clearly associated with the occurrence of the problem. What the problem is rather than the problems absence, what it is not. Preferably you identify just one predominantly good contender. 6. Attempt to infer any likely causes of the problem, by developing hypotheses that would explain how the potential cause(s) could have caused the observed problem. 7. Now test the potential cause of the problem, checking that it is not only a potential cause, but also that it is the only cause (e.g. that occurrence of this problem is always and only associated with occurrence of this cause or combination of causes). Decision-Making 1. Set up specific requirements: o Expected results (what type, how much, where, when) o Resource constraints (personnel, money, materials, time, power, etc.) 2. Prioritise your needs (distinguishing ‘musts’ and ‘wants’) 143 3. Develop optional supplies of action. Kepner-Tregoe suggests systematically investigating each requirement and identifying ways of accomplishing it. Alternatively, other idea generation methods could be used. 4. Rate the alternatives against requirement priorities (e.g. Comparison Tables). 5. Choose the best option as a provisional solution 6. Identify potential unfavourable consequences. A possible checklist is given in the table below: Possible Adverse Consequences Motivation, skills, health Capital, outgoings, return Source, availability, handling, storage Security, adaptability Relationships, communications Space, flexibility, location Quality, quantity, pace, timing Economy, competition, law, government 1. Plan implementation, including minimising adverse consequences and monitoring progress. 144 Laddering From Mycoted Switching to and fro between different levels of abstraction to create ideas is often known as Laddering or the "Why Method." The sequence below is a ‘ladder’ of concepts in which the items lower down are all members or sub-sets of the ones higher up so that you move between the abstract and the concrete: 1. Define the existing idea to start from: ‘This cup in my hand’. 2. Ladder up: What wider categories could it is an example of? ‘A drinking vessel; something made of china; a present from my daughter, things on my desk…’ Say you decide to build on ‘A drinking vessel’ then ladder up again. What could it be an example of? ‘A smaller container; a domestic utensil; something for holding fluids…’ 3. Ladder down again: Put together a list for ‘A small container’ but this time laddering down; give some examples of ‘small containers’. ‘Boxes, bottles, envelopes, buckets, bags…’ Give some examples of ‘bottles’: ‘Soft-drink bottles, gas bottles, ink bottles, antique bottles, bottles with message in them… Give some examples of ‘soft-drink bottles’: ‘Plastic Coke bottles, milk bottles, great big bottles of mineral water, posh soft-drink bottles made to look on in the fridge; the huge, medium and small ones on the super-market shelves; ones labelled in Japanese; ones used for primary school constructions…’ 4. Ladder up again: Now make a list for ‘milk-bottles’ by laddering up. What are they examples of? ‘Recyclable-containers’. What are the ‘recyclable containers’ examples of? ‘Waste reduction; green policies; potential resources’, etc., 5. Generally, laddering up towards the general lets you to expand out into new areas. Laddering down allows you to focus down onto definite parts of these new areas. Alternating between the two helps you to investigate a wider territory. Laddering up is typically more difficult than laddering down. If stuck, try the following: 6. Ask "Why?" or "So what?": continually asking ‘Why?’ normally results in laddering up; repeatedly asking ‘So what?’ tends to ladder down. 7. ‘Construct-triad’ method: Choose any three ideas you already have and find some way in which two of the three go together, but the third is different. For instance, in a productivity problem, three ideas might be: o Pay employees more o Reduce waste o Improve management 145 One possible distinction might be a technical vs. human one: reduce waste is technical; pay employees more and improve management are human. You could now ladder up from reduce waste either to technical or to non-human solutions (or vice-versa for the other two ideas). 146 Lateral Thinking From Mycoted Edward de Bono writes in "Serious Creativity", how he became interested in the sort of thinking that computers could not do: creative and perceptual thinking. The entry in the Concise Oxford Dictionary reads: "seeking to solve problems by unorthodox or apparently illogical methods. Lateral thinking is about moving sideways when working on a problem to try different perceptions, different concepts and different points of entry. The term covers a variety of methods including provocations to get us out of the usual line of thought. Lateral thinking is cutting across patterns in a self-organising system, and has very much to do with perception. For example: Granny is sitting knitting and three year old Susan is upsetting Granny by playing with the wool. One parent suggests putting Susan into the playpen. The other parent suggests it might be a better idea to put Granny in the playpen to protect her from Susan. A lateral answer! The term "Lateral Thinking" can be used in two senses: Specific: A set of systematic techniques used for changing concepts and perceptions, and generating new ones. General: Exploring multiple possibilities and approaches instead of pursuing a single approach. The information on "Lateral Thinking" is Copyright ©The McQuaig Group Inc. Reproduced here by permission from APTT 147 Listing From Mycoted Listing is a derivative of the Attribute Listing technique (Crawford) and in fact is a onedimensional version of the Heuristic Ideation Technique (HIT) method (Tauber). Although used mainly for new product development in theory it can be used for any situation, which has elements that can be listed, and for which combination of elements are likely to suggest solutions. HIT uses the components of existing products, however the Listing technique (Whiting, 1958) uses the products in a given are: 1. Identify the sort of product you would like to produce (e.g. ‘bathroom equipment) 2. Identify a area in which these exist (e.g. ‘bathroom’), catalogue, as many objects, products, etc. as you can that exist in that area (e.g. sink, bath, shower, toilet, etc.) Reduce your list to about 10-12 items, stop step 4 becoming unwieldy. 3. Sketch a triangular template in which the rows and columns are both labelled with the items in the narrowed down list that you have just created, so that the units in the template correspond to the comparison of each item on the list with every other item on the list (e.g. ‘bath/shower’, ‘toilet/sink’, etc. for every possible combination). 4. For each unit, use centred Free Association to come up with possible ideas: o What sort of new bathroom product does ‘bath/shower’ suggest to you? 5. Choose the top ideas for additional assessment 148 Listing Pros and Cons From Mycoted If an established set of criteria already exists evaluation of the options becomes equivalent to Comparison Tables, with all criteria of equal weight. However, it is more likely that a situation is not that simplistic with little or no clear criteria. For example, deciding what you should do next from a set unrelated possibilities (Shall I go home, finish this job, or go to the cinema). Using the Pros and Cons approach with only 2-3 options lists the pros and cons for each and compares the results directly. However, working with larger numbers of options requires the following more systematic approach 1. Generate a comprehensive collection of Pros and Cons, by working through the options one by one and generate a realistic set of pros and cons for each (using creativity approaches if it helps). Write each pro or con on a separate card or Postit, clearly marked ‘+’(for a pro) and ‘-‘(for a con). 2. Collate the collection into an ordered checklist of criteria, with pros and cons stacked separately, any duplicates removed and a single master checklist of all pros and all cons prepared. If time is short an assistant could carry out the first iteration. Focus on the central issue you are working on and order the lists Vital (‘make or break’), Important (but not absolutely vital), Marginal (i.e. ‘would be nice if…’). These categories can be sub divided further is necessary. 3. Pick out ‘Vital’ Options, by making a ‘short-list’ of potentially viable options. If unsure about an item, do not exclude it, yet. 4. From the ‘Vital’ short-list, pick out ‘Important’ options, counting the number of ‘important’ pro criteria that are present, and con criteria that are absent. Eliminate all options that score poorly at this stage, to leave a list of feasible, good quality options. 5. Repeat with the ‘Marginal’ criteria, condensing the short-list yet further to only options that are feasible, of good quality, and which have useful additional properties 6. This technique is used mainly for screening out clearly weaker options using vital/important/marginal distinction. It does not make finer distinctions within a final short-list. Another technique should be sought to take the short-lists any further. 149 Metaplan Information Market From Mycoted The Metaplan Information Market method, developed by a German consultancy firm uses a number of ‘communication tools’. Groups are set up to focus on a problem and its possible solutions. Opinions are developed, a common understanding is essential and a formulation of objectives, recommendations and actions plans is the goal. Specially trained ‘facilitators’ administer the groups, ensuring good communication; cooperation and high levels of understanding are achieved. His objective is to provide the group with the right sort of communication tools at the right moment so that the group is able to get to the bottom of the crucial matter with greater success and efficiency. ‘Communication tools’ are: Basic physical items (standard oval, cloud-shaped and rectangular cards of various colours Felt tipped pens Display boards, etc. A series of standard presentation get-togethers Rules that produce clear and legible display Rules that provide effective communication, voting, etc. in groups. These tools allow the ‘facilitator’ to administer effective, co-operation within group discussions where key issues are recorded and displayed and the participants can put forward their ideas. This method is also useful for large-scale meetings or ‘information markets’. One possible arrangement: Organise a fairground-like set of, perhaps, 20 booths around a very large hall, each booth representing a predetermined theme or critical question and staffed by 2-3 trained ‘facilitators’. Participants can choose which booths interest them most, and can move between them, joining in the discussions at each booth, and recording their votes at predetermined stages. (Business Week 1976). The recognition of themes and the supervision of expectations for a major ‘market’ necessitate several months of prior planning, initial meetings and an attempt at decisionmaking. Vigorous follow-up is imperative to ensure the process does not experience a lack of expectation from the participants. 150 Mind Mapping From Mycoted Mind mapping, developed by Tony Buzan, also has been called ‘spider diagrams’ represents ideas, notes, information, etc. in far-reaching tree-diagrams. To draw a mind-map: Layout a large sheet of paper in landscape and write a concise heading for the overall theme in the centre of the page. For each major sub-topic or cluster of material, start a new major branch from the central theme, and label it. Each sub-sub-topic or sub-cluster forms a subordinate branch to the appropriate main branch Carry on in this way for ever finer sub-branches. It may be appropriate to put an item in more than one place, cross-link it to several other items or show relationships between items on different branches. Coding the colour, type of writing etc can do this. Alternatively you drawings in place of writing may help bring the diagram to life. Software packages are available that support with mind-maps, making it easier to amend and reshuffle the map, they often hold notes and documents, etc. associated with the labels (so acting as a filing system). Computer-based maps have the disadvantage of the small screen, and are less flexible than hand drawn versions (e.g you cannot usually make cross-links). Freemind is a cross platform free and open source example which is very popular for is flexibility and compatibility. Radical tree diagrams, hierarchical tree diagrams, clustering methods (cf. Snowball Technique, KJ-method, Highlighting) all use the same hierachical logic. However, they have different optical impacts, and dissimilar abilities to characterize derived connections such as over-lapping, cross-linking etc. We are currently evaluating Mind Map Software from smartdraw to determine how good it is to create great Mind Maps fast. 151 Another Mind Map Software is MindVisualizer which is solely focused on mind mapping, thus it's very easy to use, adding branches is easy-press the ENTER/Insert key and type the topic. Below example illustrates why it can increase your productivity. 152 153 Morphological Analysis From Mycoted Morphological Analysis was developed by Fritz Zwicky (the Swiss astrophysicist and aerospace scientist based at the California Institute of Technology) in the 1940's and 50's as a method for systematically structuring and investigating the total set of relationships contained in multi-dimensional, usually non-quantifiable, problem complexes. Morphological Analysis is an extension of Attribute Listing. Imagine you have a product that could be made of 3 types of material, in 6 possible shapes, and with 4 kinds of mechanism. Theoretically there are 72 (3x6x4) potential combinations of material, shape and mechanism. Some of these combinations may already exist; others may be impossible or impractical. Those left over may represent prospective new products. This method of can be extended to virtually any problem area that can be structured dimensionally. Contents 1 Identifying Suitable Dimensions and Options 2 Computer Aided Morphological Analysis 3 References 4 External links Identifying Suitable Dimensions and Options One possible approach is to use group techniques. Brainstorm issues, ideas, facts aspects, etc. associated with your problem, put each piece of information or suggestion on individual cards or Post-it, then group them and label the group (or arrange them using mind mapping). Iterate over and over again until you have condensed your information to a small quantity of labelled groups each of which constitutes an understandable element, and has only a small number of items inside it, each of which is a clear option, written on a card or Post-it. Up to 7 dimensions of 7 values, gives up to nearly a million potential arrangements, making systematic examination out of the question without the use of computers to assist. However, devices are available to make it easier to study multiple re-combinations. An illustration of this taken from Allen’s Morphologiser a vertical strip is produced for each dimension, with the name of the dimension at the top, the options spaced one under the other below it (e.g. as Post-its stuck one under the other, edge to edge). Place the strips sis by side and slide them up and down to create different horizontal combinations. 154 Up to, say, 50-100 possible combinations, is a workable range with the aid of a computer to systematically go through every combination. Upto, say, 3-400 combinations, various techniques/devices can narrow down this larger set of combinations. You could try eliminating less functional dimensions (or options) (e.g. a dimension such as ‘colour’ may well be of only minor significance). An alternative approach (see AIDA) is to recognize pairs of options that are clearly not of use, by eliminating a pair; exclusion is automatic for other combinations that involved that pair. For still larger numbers, no systematic investigation is probable. Revert to Attribute Listing, using arbitrarily chosen permutations to stimulate ideas. Computer Aided Morphological Analysis Advanced Computer-Aided Mmorphological Analysis was developed in 1995-96 by Tom Ritchey, then at the Department of Technological Foresight and Assessment, at the Swedish National Defence Research Agency in Stockholm (Ritchey, 2002). MA/Casper is a dedicated software system which supports an extended form of Morphological Analysis. It serves as a development platform for creating scenario and strategy laboratories, and morphological inference models (Ritchey, 2003). It is presently in its 4th programming version. With dedicated computer support, far more than 7 variables, and many millions of configurations, can be treated quite rigorously. When a solution space is synthesized, the resultant morphological field becomes an inference model, in which any parameter (or multiple parameters) can be selected as "input", and any others as "output". Thus, with computer support, the morphological field can be turned into a laboratory with which one can designate initial conditions and examine alternative solutions. References Ritchey, Tom (2002). General Morphological Analysis: A general method for non-quantified modelling. Available at http://www.swemorph.com/ma.html Ritchey, Tom (2003). MA/Casper: Advanced Computer Support for General Morphological Analysis. Available at http://www.swemorph.com/macasper.html Zwicky, F., Discovery, Invention, Research - Through the Morphological Approach, Toronto: The Macmillian Company (1969). Zwicky, F. & Wilson A. (eds.), New Methods of Thought and Procedure: Contributions to the Symposium on Methodologies. Berlin: Springer (1967). External links Swedish Morphological Society 155 Modelling Complex Socio-Technical Systems using Morphological Analysis Adapted from an address to the Swedish Parliamentary IT Commission, Stockholm, December 2002. 156 Morphological Forced Connections From Mycoted The general use of a matrix in Creativity and Innovation is often known as a"Morphological" method. One method of attribute listing is contained in The Universal Traveler which authors Koberg and Bagnall call "Morphological Forced Connections". They give the following rules for their "foolproof invention-finding scheme" along with an example showing how their scheme works. Here it is: 1. List the attributes of the situation. 2. Below each attribute, place as many alternates as you can think of 3. When completed, make many random runs through the alternates, picking up a different one from each column and assembling the combinations into entirely new forms of your original subject. After all, inventions are often new ways of combining old bits and pieces. Shape / Cylinder Material Cap Ink Source Faceted Metal Attached Cap No Cartridge Square Glass No Cap Permanent Beaded Wood Retracts Sculptured Paper Cleaning Cap Paper Cartridge Cartridge made of ink Example Invention: An environmental Cube Pen; one corner writes, leaving six faces for ads, calendars, photos, etc. using only wood and paper... 157 Multiple Redefinition From Mycoted Open-ended problems by definition are not well defined ‘the boundaries are fuzzy’ and different stakeholders may have varying boundary perceptions. The solver is unlikely to have a suitable description at the outset of the exact problem in hand and finds redefinition of the problem throughout the project. A variety of redefinition techniques exist (see Boundary Relaxation). This method suggested by Tudor Rickards (1974), is designed to assist the solver increase imaginative and original redefinitions through a series of questions that take you through unexpected mental modes Empathic Analytic Motivational Magical Metaphorical Off-beat The following checklist of provocative statements is suggested to bring about these feelings: ‘There is usually more than one-way of looking at problems. You could also define this one as ….’ ‘….but the main point of the problem is….’ ‘What I would really like to do is….’ ‘If I could break all laws of reality (physical, social etc.) I would try to solve it by ….’ ‘The problem put in another way could be likened to …’ ‘Another, even stranger, way of looking at it might be….’ To use this technique, try following this simple procedure: 1. Taking as short or as long as required note down on a sheet of paper an openended problem of importance to you. The problem should be one, which you would like several answers leading to possible solutions. 2. In your own time, complete the above statements with reference to your particular problem. However, if nothing comes to mind for a particular statement, progress on to the next statement 3. It can be useful to have a break at this stage to allow time for deliberation. 4. Return to your original definition ( 1 ), have any of the redefinitions helped? Can you see the problem from a different angle? Write down any thoughts or ideas you have at this stage. 158 NAF From Mycoted This is a simple way of scoring / assessing potential solutions to a problem. Give a score out of 10 for each of the three items; Novelty How novel is the idea? If it isn't novel for this situation, it probably isn't very creative Attractiveness How attractive is this as a solution? does it completely solve the problem? Or is it only a partial solution? Feasibility How feasibly is it to put this into practice? It may have been a really attractive solution to use a time machine, but is it really feasible? Once you have the mark out of 30 for each potential solution, you can easily rank them to then refine the top few. 159 NLP From Mycoted NLP stands for Neuro-Linguistic Programming, a name that encompasses the three most influential components involved in producing human experience: neurology, language and programming. The neurological system regulates how our bodies function, language determines how we interface and communicate with other people and our programming determines the kinds of models of the world we create. Neuro-Linguistic Programming describes the fundamental dynamics between mind (neuro) and language (linguistic) and how their interplay effects our body and behavior (programming). NLP is a pragmatic school of thought - an 'epistemology' - that addresses the many levels involved in being human. NLP is a multi-dimensional process that involves the development of behavioral competence and flexibility, but also involves strategic thinking and an understanding of the mental and cognitive processes behind behavior. NLP provides tools and skills for the development of states of individual excellence, but it also establishes a system of empowering beliefs and presuppositions about what human beings are, what communication is and what the process of change is all about. At another level, NLP is about self-discovery, exploring identity and mission. It also provides a framework for understanding and relating to the 'spiritual' part of human experience that reaches beyond us as individuals to our family, community and global systems. NLP is not only about competence and excellence, it is about wisdom and vision. In essence, all of NLP is founded on two fundamental presuppositions: 1. The Map is Not the Territory. As human beings, we can never know reality. We can only know our perceptions of reality. We experience and respond to the world around us primarily through our sensory representational systems. It is our 'neurolinguistic' maps of reality that determine how we behave and that give those behaviors meaning, not reality itself. It is generally not reality that limits us or empowers us, but rather our map of reality. 2. Life and 'Mind' are Systemic Processes. The processes that take place within a human being and between human beings and their environment are systemic. Our bodies, our societies, and our universe form an ecology of complex systems and sub-systems all of which interact with and mutually influence each other. It is not possible to completely isolate any part of the system from the rest of the system. Such systems are based on certain 'self-organizing' principles and naturally seek optimal states of balance or homeostasis. All of the models and techniques of NLP are based on the combination of these two principles. In the belief system of NLP it is not possible for human beings to know objective reality. Wisdom, ethics and ecology do not derive from having the one 'right' or 'correct' map of the world, because human beings would not be capable of making one. 160 Rather, the goal is to create the richest map possible that respects the systemic nature and ecology of ourselves and the world we live in. The people who are most effective are the ones who have a map of the world that allows them to perceive the greatest number of available choices and perspectives. NLP is a way of enriching the choices that you have and perceive as available in the world around you. Excellence comes from having many choices. Wisdom comes from having multiple perspectives. Essentially, experts are carefully studied and analyzed (or modeled in NLP parlance) as a way to make conscious and unpack the mental strategies they used to get expert results. Once the strategies are decoded, they are the available for others to enhance their own expertise. Milton Erickson, the well known hypnotherapist, and Virginia Satir, one of the world's best known family therapist were among those who were modeled by NLP practitioners. Interestingly, it appears that people can be modeled even after they have died! A case in point: Robert Dilts (one of the creators of NLP) recently modeled Walt Disney. He studied his writings, observed films of him doing his work and interviewed people that worked with him. From this he extracted the Disney Creativity Model, which will be briefly described below. The basis strategy for modeling people is to either observe them while performing or to have them mentally go back to a time when they were performing extremely well, and to have them describe (while reliving a particular moment of great human performance) the thought patterns, physiology and context that supported the performance The modeler might also choose to elicit a strategy that lead to poor performance or a failure to get the same results as a "counter model." This is done to provide a contrast that clearly points out the distinctions between the two states of "success" and "failure". NLP provides a set of linguistic and observational tools that ensure useful descriptions and models. Dilts concluded that Walt Disney moved through three distinct states when he produce his work. Dilt's called them Dreamer, Realist and Critic. Each of these three stages have a distinct physiology and thought patterns and can be consciously employed by individuals who want to improve their creative performance. NLP techniques are also useful to help you remember, at an instant, what psychological state you must be in to be creative. NLP practitioners can "anchor" a particular state in which you are most creative. In fact, you anchor these state yourself. Many people have to be in a certain room, or standing or walking, or in some particular context in order to be creative. The context is the anchor that reminds you mind/body to be creative. References Bandler & Grinder "Frogs Into Princes" 1979 Dilts, Grinder, Bandler, DeLozier "Neuro-Linguistic Programming" Vol. I 1980 161 Bandler & Grinder "Reframing" 1982 Bandler "Using Your Brain" 1985 162 Negative Brainstorming From Mycoted Negative (or Reverse) brainstorming requires a significant level of effort analysing a final short-list (rather the initial mass) of existing ideas. (see BulletProofing and Potential Problem Analysis ). Examining potential failures is relevant when an idea is very new, complex to implement or there is little margin for error. Negative brainstorming consists of a conventional BrainStorming session (or any other suitable idea-generation method) that is applied to questions such as: ‘What could go wrong with this project?’ Often referred to as the ‘tear-down’ method, because of its negativity can be advantageous and seen in a positive light when training implementers to deal with hostile criticism. However, even this example needs to be followed up with a constructive debrief to ensure the implementer feels encouraged and secure. 1. Brainstorm Displaying a comment such as ‘How not to solve the problem, i.e. how to really mess up implementing project X’ will generate much humour and unexpected ideas (which should be noted) 2. Identify a cluster i.e. comments said in different ways that mean the same thing ‘Staff only’; ‘don’t tell non-staff’, reverse the cluster to give a single positive comment e.g. ‘tell those involved’ Repeat step 2, ad lib as you go References J. G. Rawlinson, Creative Thinking and Brainstorming, 1981 163 Nominal Group Technique From Mycoted Nominal Group Technique (Delbecq and Van de Ven (1971), is a structured from of BrainStorming or BrainWriting, with up to 10 participants and an experienced facilitator (or up to 3-4 groups of up to 10 participants, with a spokesperson for each group and a single facilitator overall) Contents 1 Underlying Principles 2 Standard Procedure 3 Adaptation for ill-structured problems 4 Adaptation for greater anonymity Underlying Principles NGT is based on three fundamental, research-based principles: ‘Nominal’ Groups are thought to generate higher quality ideas than interacting groups typical of Classic Brainstorming. A nominal group consists of several people (usually gathered in one room) who are prepared to work as a team to resolve a problem. This sharing of ideas (which are anonymously submitted) promotes a sense of involvement and motivation within the group. The ‘round robin’ element provides encouragement and equal opportunities for all members to contribute. Contribution from all participants is encouraged and every individual’s idea is given equal standing, whether unique or not. Reliable communication requires that the recipient’s understanding of a message be checked with the sender, especially in the case of ‘new ideas’ being put forward. Checks for accurate communication are built in to the technique. Standard Procedure Various forms of the procedure can be undertaken, however, the classical form suggested by Delbecq et al. uses the following steps: 1. Anonymous generation of ideas in writing, begins with the facilitator stating the problem and giving the participants up to 10 minutes to jot down any initial ideas privately. The facilitator also writes down his own ideas. 2. Round-robin recording of ideas, allows each person in turn to read out one idea, which the facilitator writes up on a flip chart for all to view and numbered sequentially. This is repeated going around the groups until all ideas are exhausted and any duplicates are eliminated. 164 3. Serial discussion to clarify ideas and check communication is encouraged by the facilitator. Working through each ideas systematically asking for questions or comments with a view to developing a shared understanding of an idea. Discussions are calm and controlled to aid clarification of the idea, they are not heated debates 4. Preliminary anonymous vote on item importance is usually carried out in the method described under Anonymous Voting. 5. Further discussion and voting, takes place if the voting is not consistent. Steps 3 – 4 can be repeated and any ideas that received votes will be re-discussed for clarification. Adaptation for ill-structured problems Modification of NGT, undertaken by Bartunek and Murnighan (1984), helps to deal with ill-structrued problems. Normal ideas are generated and listed, followed by the facilitator questioning if the ideas are relevant to the same problem. If not, the problem is said to be ill-structured and the ideas generated are clustered into coherent groups (see Snowball Technique ). These clusters of ill-structured ideas are then treated as problems in their own right and the NGT procedure is applied to them. Regular breaks are taken by the participants to ensure the group feel they are still working on the original problem Adaptation for greater anonymity Useful where low trust conditions exist i.e. the presence of significant status or stakeholder differences. (see Improved Nominal Group Technique - INGT) 165 Nominal-Interacting Technique From Mycoted The Nominal-Interacting Technique is so called as it alternates between ‘nominal’ and ‘interacting’ modes. The ‘nominal’ mode allows individual perspectives on the problem to be shared. Refreshment breaks occur at appropriate times, i.e. when discussion between participants is relevant and helpful. Participants are encouraged to share opinions, exchange facts and challenge views, in contrast with the non-interactive ‘nominal group’ mode. Example based on a Nominal Group Technique (NGT) structure may look like this: Outline the problem Private, contemplation of ideas Round-robin collation and displaying of ideas o Break (where differences of opinions are identified) Whole group discusses the displayed ideas o Break (differences of opinion readdressed) First attempt at prioritising ideas o Break (final differences of opinion within the group are addressed) Final prioritisation of ideas Votes are confidential, however individuals can request one another’s ranking and its justification 166 Notebook From Mycoted An ‘ideas diary’ kept in a convenient, small and portable notebook gives you the benefits of brainstorming whilst on the move. Keep an ideas notebook, which is small enough to be portable wherever you go. Routinely note down any ideas that transpire at unusual times, regardless of their relevance. Using idea notebooks at stimulating events, i.e. training workshops, conferences, etc. can ‘trigger’ ideas for a problem that you are trying to resolve. Keep the problem ‘alive’ at the back of your mind throughout the event, you may even have an opportunity to ‘bounce’ your ideas off others attending. Display output for a few days – A ‘Poster Notebook’, in the form of drawings, lists of ideas, or construction when displayed could benefit from other viewing it. Left on display for several days (e.g. stuck on a notice board) allows others to come up with alternative ideas, which are then open to discussion. The Moleskine is one of the most popular makes of notebook among creative thinkers who have a passion for stationery. See also: moleskinerie. 167 Observer and Merged Viewpoints From Mycoted A problem can be viewed from two distinctive viewpoints, an observers and a merged: The observers viewpoint, is when a problem is approached with imagination and observation (the object being something you see or hear) with thoughts such as: ‘Stand back’ ‘See something objectively’ ‘Remain detached’ ‘An arms length view’ ‘Put things in perspective’ ‘Remain separate’ The merged viewpoint is when you are the object (or person or whatever). Having become the object/person, you see, hear and feel as the subject would, often called ‘projective identification’. It can be interpreted as pure fantasy (i.e. imagining what it would be like to be a wheel). However if used in an adept manner, can be extremely empathetic, bringing to mind phrases such as: ‘Getting inside their skin’ ‘Seeing the situation through their eyes’ ‘Standing in the other person’s shoes’ Care must be taken to ‘imagine that someone else is like you when they aren’t’. The merged viewpoint uses ‘I’ to refer to whatever you are imagining, e.g. for the wheel: ‘my outer feels pressure from the ground as I am rolled’. Merged observation is an involved state, you identify with the object you are considering, e.g. to resolve a technical problem with the wheel you become the wheel, right down the scale, workings and trying to ‘experience’ its role, thus getting a feel for how it would operate better. The NLP method makes a distinction between dissociated and associated states. An associated (or merged) state being when some local event triggers a past memory, and you feel you are re-experiencing the same feelings. If a good memory has been triggered, useful, energetic, good and positive vibes are invoked. However, if the memory is a bad one negativity is recalled. The dissociated method is useful for recalling negative, bad memories as a detached experience. Thereby neutralising the bad times, overlaying them with vivid energetic positive feelings. Observed or Merged, Detached or Involved, Dissociated or Associated, both/all strategies have their usefulness in creative thinking 168 Osborn's Checklist From Mycoted A basic rule of Brainstorming is build onto ideas already suggested. Alex Osborn, the originator of classical brainstorming, first communicated this. A checklist was formulated as a means of transforming an existing idea into a new one. The checklist is designed to have a flexible, trial and error type of approach. A derivation of Osborn’s checklist is SCAMPER. The Checklist: Put to other uses? As it is?… If modified?.. Adapt? Is there anything else like this? What does this tell you? Is the past comparable? Modify? Give it a new angle? Alter the colour, sound, odour, meaning, motion, and shape? Magnify? Can anything be added, time, frequency, height, length, strength? Can it be duplicated, multiplied or exaggerated? Minify? Can anything be taken away? Made smaller? Lowered? Shortened? Lightened? Omitted? Broken up? Substitute? Different ingredients used? Other material? Other processes? Other place? Other approach? Other tone of voice? Someone else? Rearrange? Swap components? Alter the pattern, sequence or layout? Change the pace or schedule? Transpose cause and effect? Reverse? Opposites? Backwards? Reverse roles? Change shoes? Turn tables? Turn other cheek? Transpose ‘+/-‘? Combine? Combine units, purposes, appeals or ideas? A blend, alloy, or an ensemble? 169 Other Peoples Definitions From Mycoted Allowing other people to air their own perspectives or challenge your views provides an opportunity to understanding the problem from an additional approach. It is a very direct application of the basic creative principle of valuing differences: 1. Your client briefly outlines the problem and framework and writes up on the flipchart their attempt to summarise the essence of the problem, using the form ‘How can I or we…’ or ‘How to…’ 2. The participants ask the client any questions for clarification that occur to them, but avoid recommending solutions, offering explanations or making judgements. 3. The client answers the questions factually, and avoids making any justifications or defences. 4. Following the questioning, each participant of the group (client and helpers) writes down privately their own attempts at expressing the essence of the problem in the same ‘How can I or we…’ /‘How to…’ format. Helpers should avoid being provocative in their versions – e.g. expressing what they have ‘read between the lines’ as well as what the client has told them. 5. When everyone feels ready, all the ideas and thoughts are written up on the flipchart, explained and discussed. 6. Finally the client decides on an ultimate version based on all the other versions and the discussion that has taken place. The client has the last word! 7. The helpers are actually operating as consultants and their assignment is not to decide how they would deal with the problem, but to help the client settle on a perspective that is most helpful to her or him. As the client has the last word, carefully worded suggestions that are sensitive to the client’s focus are likely to be more productive. 170 Other Peoples Viewpoints From Mycoted If anything concrete is to happen, the real ‘last word’ is that of the organisation and personnel whose approval and compliance are essential. Therefore it is vital to understand their viewpoints. DeBono and others, suggest this exercise that is particularly suited to people problems where three or four parties have different views about a situation, and works well with a group of 16 or so. It proposes a means of achieving multiple perspectives on the issue under consideration. 1. Create a list of the key three or four people or roles in the problem area and get the client to describe the people and roles concerned and to answer enquiries. 2. Separating the group into small teams, allocate one role to each team then each group should attempt to ‘get into the shoes’ of its role, role-playing it in the full theatrical sense if they are inclined. The intention is to be able to look at the world from this party’s viewpoint. 3. Either descriptively or as a role-play, each group should give a presentation of its characters viewpoint to the other groups. The viewpoint should comprise both personal and role-related issues. For instance any particular role may have some concerns to do with current projects, etc., and others to do with family and personal career, and yet others to do with attitudes, habits, prejudices, etc. 4. This can be taken on to a second stage by forming a series of negotiating teams where each has one representative from each of the original role teams. Each negotiating team has to try to reach agreement about the issue. 5. Finally each group reports back to the others on how they got on. 6. Take time out to carefully reflect on the events. 7. A fundamental negotiating technique is to try to spot areas of agreement, partial disagreement and major disagreement, then try to increase the un-controversial areas by attempting to reach agreement on the least tricky areas, where there is partial agreement, leaving the major disagreements till the end. Even in apparently impossible situations, this technique can be surprisingly productive. 171 PDCA From Mycoted Dr Deming's pioneering work in quality management gave rise to a continuous process to achieve better quality products and services, and to improve the process that delivers them. The PDCA cycle, or "Deming Cycle" as it is often called, consists of four stages: Plan, Do, Check, Act. Plan: Determine the root cause of the problem then plan a change or a test aimed at improvement. Do: Carry out the change or the test, preferably in a pilot or on a small scale. Check: Check to see if the desired result was achieved, what or if anything went wrong, and what was learned. Act: Adopt the change if the desired result was achieved. If the result was not as desired, repeat the cycle using knowledge obtained from the previous cycle. Although this is a continuous cycle, you need to start somewhere. As a problem solving process you would normally start at the Check stage, checking what the requirements are and reality is. The gap between reality and requirements will enable you to determine if you need to Act To use this as a problem solving technique it does rely on there being a process already in place, which can then be modified. A more refined version of PDCA is the 7 Step Model for problem solving. 172 PIPS From Mycoted The phases of integrated problem-solving (PIPS) technique (Morris and Sashkin, 1978) described by VanGundy (1981; 1988), is a variation of the classic Creative Problem Solving - CPS method. However, in addition to defining the range of analytic steps required, PIPS also defines the inter-personal actions needed for each step, as shown in the table below: Problem-solving Tasks Inter-personal Tasks 1. Problem Definition Search for information about the problem Detailed understanding of problem situation Agreeing group goals Does the information search involve everyone? Open sharing of problem information Consensus building 2. Solution Generation Brainstorm ideas Elaborate and refine ideas Develop tentative list of solutions Encourage all to brainstorm Encourage no criticism Encourage co-operation when listing solutions 3. Ideas into Action Evaluate strengths/weakness of each idea Try combining good ideas Select a tentative solution Avoiding nonproductive criticism Resolving conflicts over combining/ modifying ideas. Consensus building 4. Action Planning List steps needed for implementation Identify resources needed Assign responsibilities for each step All participate in listing steps Group adequately evaluates available resources Develop real commitments 5. Plan Evaluation Success measures for each step Timetable to measure progress against Contingency planning in case steps need modifying All contribute to developing success measures All comfortable with time-table Real commitments for contingency plans 173 6. Evaluate product and process How well do effects of solution match original goals? Identify any new problems created Any future actions needed? How much group participation overall? Are self-expression and offers of support easy? What has group learned about itself? To work effectively PIPS requires: Problem-solving group A Facilitator An observer to monitor the problem-solving tasks An observer to monitor the inter-personal tasks In theory the observer’s roles should be rotated, in as much as, at the end of each phase the previous observers would swap with others in the problem-solving group. The authors of the PIPS technique also provide a questionnaire (considerably more detailed than the table above) which all participants have for reference, but which the observers fill in. There is a general review at the closing stage of each step of the process issues, and members only go on to the next step when all the tasks of the previous step have been satisfactorily completed. The complete PIPS process is almost certainly too cumbersome for routine problem solving, but may prove beneficial for training. Thus the general rule of placing explicit inter-personal goals alongside the task goals of any problem-solving method has a lot to be said for it. 174 PMI From Mycoted Plus, Minus, Interesting - PMI A ‘spin-off’ of the technique Listing Pros and Cons. A list or table with the categories Plus/Minus/Interesting should be formulated e.g. Plus, positive reasons Minus, negative reasons Interesting, points of interest PMI Score = (Plus) + (Minus) + (Interesting) For each reason/point in each category a score (positive/negative) is assigned. The final PMI score will be the result of adding each categories scores together. 175 Paired Comparison From Mycoted Paired comparison is a practical technique for comparing up to; say 10-15 items (ideas, options or criteria etc.) – i.e. too many to rank easily just by inspection, but not so many that the table size becomes unmanageable. However, if a larger comparison is necessary then you can use the same principle with computer aided methods such Interpretive structural modeling This example matrix shows a personal choice amongst seven different fruit Total stars for each (A)Apple (O)Orange (M)Melon (K)Kiwi (B)Banana (P)Pear fruit over whole table (C) C C C C C C Cherries Cherries *** * ** * * * get 9 O M A B P Apples (A)Apple *** * ** * * get 2 M O B P Oranges (O)Orange * ** * * get 5 M B M Melons (M)Melon ** * ** get 6 B K Kiwis (K)Kiwi * ** get 2 P Bananas (B)Banana * get 4 Pears (P)Pear get 3 1. Arrange a matrix as show above, giving each item a unique one-letter abbreviation (e.g. O for Orange in the example). 2. Mark each cell in the matrix to indicate which fruit you prefer of the two items it represents. You could also show how strong each preference is as the example illustrates. For instance, in the example o ‘C ***’ means: Cherries very much preferred o ‘B *’ means: Bananas slightly preferred’ 3. Now sum up the total number of preferences or ‘*’s each item has. For instance: o There are 6 cells where Cherries are preferred (‘C’) which between them have 9‘*’s, thus Cherries get a total score of 9. 176 Conversely there are only 2 cells where Oranges are preferred (‘O’) with 5 ‘*’s between them, so Oranges get a total score of 5. 4. These total scores are shown in the right-hand column. Clearly, Cherries win by quite a wide margin, followed by Melons, Bananas and Pears. o 177 Panel Consensus From Mycoted The panel consensus technique was designed for use in large organisations (e.g. a military service) with a capability for generating a large number of ideas (perhaps 4-500 or more) that would then need to be narrowed down (Taylor, 1972 as described by VanGundy, 1981; 1988)). There is no time is built in for research, it is assumed that due to large number of people involved that the necessary knowledge is available, therefore sensible decisions can be made based on discussion and voting. Originally (1972), when it was described, it required a lot of clerical and administrative support, and must have been a very cumbersome process, implying a many-layered hierarchy; indeed the method read like an awesome explanation for delayering! However, if repeated nowadays, much of it might be computer and network based within a much flatter structure, making it much simpler operationally. The underlying picture is that of progressive filtering through a series of selective funnels (c.f. the idea of a series of hurdles that underlies Progressive Hurdles). The early phases engage large numbers of less skilful people using fairly straightforward methods to remove less suitable options, leaving small numbers of high-powered people to deliberate in more sophisticated ways on the resulting short-lists. To begin: Each panel is staffed by a neutral administrator who looks after the paperwork, checks time-keeping, helps with weighting calculations, etc. and there are also an overall controller and administrator. Idea generation phase: 24 hours are given to individuals with some knowledge of the problem, to come up with ideas. Each problem is presented in a comprehensive (up to 2 pages), standardised way (Title, Problem statement, Key points of the idea, Description of how it might be implemented). Strict anonymity is preserved. For the latter phases to make sense, this phase needs to generate at least 4-500 ideas. Screening Phase: The 4-500 ideas are divided up randomly between 15 screening panels of 15 people each, carefully chosen for their shared familiarity of the field. Each panel is given 3-4 hours to reach consensus about the best five of the ideas allocated to it, working via a discussion and by assigning each idea a value on a five-point rating scale. This results in a short-list of 75 (15 x 5) ideas to pass on to the next phase. Selection Phase: 3 Further panels, each of 5 middle managers selected for their expertise in the field, are given identical sets of clean copies of these 75 ideas. In much the same 178 way as the previous phase though possibly with more analysis the selection panels endeavour to reach consensus. Again, each has 3-4 hours to reach consensus about what it considers the 5 best ideas, though this time they have to write statements justifying their choice. There may well, of course, be duplicates amid the resulting 15 (3 x 5) lists, as the three panels are working independently in parallel. Refining Phase: One panel of 5 highly experienced upper-middle managers takes these 15 ideas and narrow them down to a final short-list, with cases justifying their choices, additionally they may simplify, develop or combine ideas as long as their basic material remains intact. Decision Phase: A further panel of five top managers come to a decision on their preferred option to pursue and how it shall be implemented 179 Paraphrasing Key Words From Mycoted This technique requires you to alter the meanings of key words in the problem statement (or any sentence that contains key words) to reveal assumptions and generate alternative perceptions. See also Boundary Examination, and the software packages: Batmemes, and Paramind. Replacing Key words with Synonyms This method devised by Edward de Bono (1970) requires you to identify key words in the sentence, substitute them one at a time with other words that have the equivalent general meaning, and create different emphases and a different rhetoric. It can be achieved in a simple and informal way from general knowledge, or at a deeper level with imaginative use of a thesaurus. E.g. look at the example below, which an average word-processor thesaurus gave the direct and indirect synonyms for the 3 key words in the problem statement: We We We We We We We We We We We have have have have have have have have have have have Underused Overcapitalised Wasted Squandered Derelict Superfluous Excessive Bountiful Generous Redundant Ignored Reprographic Duplicating Copying Remaking Transcribing Facsimile Mimicking Mirroring Reproducing Mimeographing Cloning Resources Capital Property Machines and people Mechanisms Holdings Agency Investment Means Belongings Facility Altering just one word at a time produces very distinct shifts in the meaning and boundary assumptions such as: We have over-capitalised reprographic resources We have underused cloning resources We have underused reprographic belongings Obviously the amount of potential paraphrasing is very large, just using the synonyms in the table above, this simple problem statement may well be reworded in at least 1000 (10 x 10 x 10) ways, many of which correspond to very different meanings. Paraphrasing as such can be used either to alter the problem statement itself, or to trigger different streams of ideas about possible solutions. Use Synonym Pairs to Trigger Ideas 180 A variation of the method above devised by Olson (1980) takes just 2 key words from the problem statement (ideally a grammatically linked pair such as noun-verb, verb-noun, verb-adverb, adjective-noun), generates lists of synonyms for each word (as above), and then uses word pairs generated from the 2 synonym lists to stimulate ideas. For example: Select grammatical keyword pair: I choose: Reprographic resources (adjective-noun pair). Generate synonyms: e.g. the two right hand columns of synonyms in the table above. Select some interesting word pairs: e.g.: mimicking agency; transcribing investment; cloning capital; mimeographing belongings etc. Use these to trigger ideas: e.g. from mimicking agency: Develop an agency to make copies of photos; develop a service for transcribing hand-written records; start to forge bank notes (!) – well, not really, but perhaps a service to print cheque-books or pay-in books or toy money for children ….etc…. 181 Personal Balance Sheet From Mycoted This Personal Balance Sheet technique by Janis and Mann is a form of Listing Pros and Cons. This was originally used by counsellors etc. for people to make a reasoned, public and recorded statement of why and individual was going to make a specific change (such as stop drinking or drugs) on the basis that it was then munch more difficult for a individual to renege later. An example table Expected Gains For you For others Expected Losses For you For others Tangible Subjective Tangible Subjective Tangible Subjective Tangible Subjective Option 1 Option 2 References Decision Making, I.L. Janis and L. Mann Techniques of Structured Problem Solving by VanGundy 182 Pictures as Idea Triggers From Mycoted There are various descriptions by several authors where pictures are used as idea triggers, Brainstorming, BrainWriting and Excursions. Warfield, et al (1975) put together a description ‘BBB’ – Battelle-Bildmappen-Brainwriting – developed at the Batelle Institute in Frankfurt, and input from Schaude (1979) describing visual Synectics. Sometimes the group creates the pictures first (see Greetings Cards and Component Detailing ), however it is more regular to use the pictures as part of a wider battery of idea triggers, rather than on there own. A generalised method might look like this: 1. The problem statement is put on view and discussed until clearly understood. 2. Initial exploration of the most obvious ideas, via any standard idea-gathering techniques occurs at the outset (e.g. private idea listing followed by a round robin); in a group environment it is not usually worth introducing special idea triggers until the direct methods are beginning decline. 3. When the flow of ideas starts to trickle, introduce the pictures. The BBB approach provides each participant a folder of 8-10 prepared pictures, whereas Schaude recommends displaying one picture at a time to the whole group (using a projector or large poster). 4. Participants can either use the pictures as triggers for Free Association or for Excursions. 5. If the ideas are being generated in private, they can be collected using a round robin when ready. 6. If pictures are being used one at a time, go over steps 2-4 as often as you feel necessary. When you have sufficient ideas, they are evaluated. 7. The choice of relevant picture criteria is important as the following suggestions show: o Aim for easily understood pictures that represent or imply something going on (e.g. avoid abstract patterns, etc). o Aim for a wide assortment of material, feel and simplicity/complexity, but if possible with impartial or positive associations rather than negative ones (despair, anger, dislike, revulsion). o Aim for pictures that present scenes unrelated to the problem; it can help if the picture is open to a variety of interpretations, so that group members can envisage their own scenarios for what is happening. 8. Facilitators are inclined to assemble collections of pictures that they have found functional. Newspapers and magazines are an obvious source; advertisements often have eye-catching and stimulating material. 183 Pin Cards From Mycoted The pin card technique (Geschka, et al., 1981) has associations with other Brainwriting methods (see Brainwriting 635 and Brainwriting Pool. The pin cards that can be small cards or post-its (each person having their own colour) are passed to the person on the immediate right, thus the card is passed around the table. This encourages turn-taking and individual contributions and is basically self-facilitating, but is not anonymous. 1. 5-8 participants group round a table, with pen and cards or post-its. This open climate promotes high trust, which will help subsequent identification if each member’s pack is of a different colour. 2. The leader writes the problem up where everyone can see it, throwing it open to discussion to make sure it is fully understood. 3. Participants work quietly, writing one idea per card or Post-it and placing it in a pile for their right-hand neighbour. 4. Each time a participant requires inspiration, they pick a card or Post-it from the pile created by their left-hand neighbour. Fresh ideas triggered by this are written on new cards or Post-its and as usual these are placed on the pile on their right (along with the trigger card). Thus the cards are transported round the table in the same direction from left to right of each participant. 5. The leader should actively promote card circulation to avoid accumulation between particular participants, at the same time being cautious not to develop an excessively competitive or pressurised environment 6. The cards or Post-its are gathered after about 20-30 minutes and positioned on a large display board and sorted into first round categories (see also Snowball Technique and KJ-Method ). 7. The leader reads each card out in turn, anticipating questions and comments to clarify the meanings. The colour coding on the cards or Post-its allows the questions to be directed at their authors. Categories can be adjusted and items recategorised if appropriate. 8. If the categories are positioned in columns, the layout is comparable to that of the Allen Morphologiser (see also Morphological Analysis). This can be used to investigate possible combinations of ideas. 184 Plusses Potentials and Concerns From Mycoted Plusses, potentials and concerns are a technique that constructively evaluated an idea (Firestien, undated) and is closely related to the ‘developmental response’ (see also Receptivity to Ideas and Advantages, Limitations and Unique Qualities). The development of each idea is quite time consuming and therefore the technique is more appropriate for use on a short-list of ideas than for general screening of large numbers of ideas. Prepare your ideas into a form such as: ‘What I see myself/us doing is…’ Then list: 1. 3 or more ‘plusses’ (Strong points) 2. 3 or more ‘potentials’ (Spin-offs, researchable possibilities, etc) 3. Your ‘concerns’ about the idea, using the layout: ‘How to…?’ And putting them in order of importance. 4. Starting with the most important idea make notes on how you can overcome each concern (or at least the main ones). 5. Taking into account step 4, try to improve your original idea: for instance: o How to get people to understand it and become enthusiastic for it o Its advantages and disadvantages (and how to surmount the disadvantages); o The resources required (people, materials, money…) o How to pre-test it (e.g. are there particular times or locations you might use?) o How to identify when implementation is complete 6. In order to keep the momentum going, put in place the opening steps of a suitable action plan, with at least one step to be done within the next day. References R. Firestien, Why Didn't I Think of That? A Personal and Professional Guide to Better Ideas and Decision Making, 1989 185 Potential Problem Analysis From Mycoted A method designed by Kepner and Tregoe (1981) as part of their problem solving technique. Its aim is to provide a challenging analysis of an idea being developed or action plan so that you can determine ways in which it may go wrong. See BulletProofing and Negative Brainstorming The method is closely related to some of the methods used in identifying potential faults in complex hardware systems, it has a ‘rational’ rather than ‘creative’ approach, but still provides and first-rate supply of creative triggers if approached in an imaginative spirit. A substantial amount of effort is required to carry out the analysis thoroughly and therefore the method is usually set aside for the more ultimate action plan (or perhaps the final handful of options). 1. Define the Key requirements, a ‘must’ – outputs, actions or events that must take place if the implementation is to be successful. Failure of any of these is likely to cause problems. 2. Record and investigate all possible problems for each of the key requirements that have now been identified, listing all ‘potential problems’ – i.e. potential ways it could go wrong (a technique such as Negative Brainstorming could help) and look at each of them (a technique such as Five Ws and H could help). If you have come up with an excess of possible problems, it is advisable to make a initial estimate of the by and large risk (see below) that each problem creates, so that you can give attention to the rest of the analysis on those that offer the greatest risk. 3. List possible causes for each potential problem, and the risk associated with it, the risk reflects both the likelihood of an event, and the severity of the impact if it did, so that ‘high likelihood / high impact’ causes present the highest risk. 4. Develop preventative actions where possible rather than having to muddle through a problem after it has happened. Where possible try to develop ways of preventing potential problem causes or minimising their effects and estimate the residual risk that might still remain even if preventative action were taken. 5. Develop contingency plans where necessary, i.e. where problems would have serious effects, but you cant prevent them, or there is a high residual risk even if you do. 6. The table (step 7) below is a simple way of displaying the analysis, which could contain a variety of quantitative estimates from crude ‘high, medium and low’ subjective judgements, to carefully, researched measures depending on the demands of the situation. 186 Analysis for Key activity: ‘Complete Project report for client’ Potential problem A: Report not delivered in time B: Report production delayed through illness... Possible causes How Ways to limit likely? risk Residual Contingency plans risk Not prepared in time High Switch preparation to the ‘A’ team Low Allow generous margin in promised delivery time Mailing delays Low Hand delivery instead of internal mail Minimal Not needed – risk acceptable ... ... ... ... ... 187 Preliminary Questions From Mycoted Preliminary Questions is a technique that is essentially a development of Five W's and H, a checklist that is recommended for selective use. Who Is affected by the problem? Else has it? Says it is a problem? Would like a solution? Would not like a solution? Could prevent a solution? Need it solved more than you? When Does it occur? Doesn’t it occur? Did it appear? Will it disappear? Do other people see your problem as a problem? Don’t other people see your problem as a problem? Is the solution needed? Might it occur again? Will it get worse? Will it get better? Where Where is it most noticeable? Is it least noticeable? Else does it exist? Is the best place to begin looking for solutions? Does it fit in the larger scheme of things? Why Is this situation a problem? Do you want to solve it? Don’t you want to solve it? Doesn’t it go away? 188 Would someone else want to solve it? Wouldn’t someone else want to solve it? Is it easy to solve? Is it hard to solve? What Might change about? Are its main weaknesses? Do you like about it? Do you dislike about it? Can be changed about it? Can’t be changed? Do you know about it? Don’t you know about it? Will it be like if it is solved? Will it be like if it isn’t solved? Have you done in the past with similar problems? Principles underlie it? Values underlie it? Problem elements are related to one another? Assumptions are you making about it? Seems to be most important about it? Seems to be least important about it? Are the sub-problems? Are your major objectives in solving it? Else do you need to know? 189 Problem Centred Leadership From Mycoted The Problem Centred Leadership (PCL) technique identifies key requirements for someone facilitating a problem-solving group, its suitability is dependent upon the leaders sensitivity to group process - these behaviours cannot be applied mechanically. Developed by Miner (1979) and described by VanGundy (1981; 1988) from the original ideas of Maier (1963) the technique outlines a particular scheme of stages, although it could be adapted to fit other stage schemes, it is summarised briefly below: Stage Suggested Leader Behaviour Problem-Centred Leadership (PCL) 1.Presentation of the Problem and relevant Information Situation-, not people-, related Avoid suggesting solutions Incorporate mutual interests Include only one specific objective Keep it brief: Present only essential clarifying information Separate facts from interpretation 5 minutes at a maximum Give assurance to group members: 2.Initial discussion of the situation Be realistic Tell members that they do not have to accept any change Allow expressions of feeling to be released in harmless channels: Look for guarded expressions of resentment Leave long pauses to encourage expressions of feeling Accept expressions of feeling Understand, but dont evaluate, 190 thoughts and feelings Involve all group members in discussion Minimal leader participation: 3.Continued Discussion Perhaps provide occasional summaries Perhaps ask questions that raise still-unexplored issues Stimulate the generation of solutions: Prevent premature closure Separate ideas generation from evaluation Deal with agreement and disagreement Summarize discussion periodically Assist in evaluating and selecting solutions: 4. Solution Generation and Decision making Examine pros and cons of each suggestion Explore supporting evidence Use stalemates constructively Explore solutions for knock-on problems Create short-list by voting and by combining choices Deal with disagreement by methods such as: Combining disputed options Analysing and trying to improve each separately Treating failure to agree as a separate problem Final leader summary: 5. Determination of Decision acceptance Provide a careful, detailed, summary of the final decision 191 Ask group to check summary and modify as required 192 Problem Inventory Analysis - PIA From Mycoted This technique by Tauber (1975) as also reported by VanGundy (1981; 1988) was developed for new product ideas. It is related to Focus Groups, Bug Listing and survey based methods such as Delphi. 193 Problem Reversal From Mycoted From What a Great Idea by Charles Thompson. The world is full of opposites. Of course, any attribute, concept or idea is meaningless without its opposite. Lao-tzu wrote Tao-te Ching which stresses the need for the successful leader to see opposites all around: The wise leader knows how to be creative. In order to lead, the leader learns to follow. In order to prosper, the leader learns to live simply. In both cases, it is the interaction that is creative. All behaviour consists of opposites...Learn to see things backwards, inside out, and upside down. The Method 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. State your problem in reverse. Change a positive statement into a negative one. Figure out what everybody else is not doing. Use the "What If" Compass Change the direction or location of your perspective Flip-flop results Turn defeat into victory or victory into defeat 1. Make the statement negative For example, if you are dealing with Customer Service issues, list all the ways you could make customer service bad. You will be pleasantly surprised at some of the ideas you will come up with. 2. Doing what everybody else doesn't For example, Apple Computer did what IBM didn't, Japan made small, fuel-efficient cars. 3. The "What-If Compass" The author (Charles Thompson) has a list of pairs of opposing actions which can be applied to the problem. Just ask yourself "What if I ........" and plug in each one of the opposites. A small sample: Stretch it/Shrink It Freeze it/Melt it Personalise it/De-personalise it ... 4. Change the direction or location of your perspective Physical change of perspective, Manage by Walking around, or doing something different. 194 5. Flip-flop results If you want to increase sales, think about decreasing them. What would you have to do? 6. Turn defeat into victory or victory into defeat If something turns out bad, think about the positive aspects of the situation. If I lost all of the files off this computer, what good would come out of it? Maybe I would spend more time with my family?! Who knows! 195 Productive Thinking Model From Mycoted The Productive Thinking Model (sometimes also known as thinkx) was developed by Tim Hurson, a Canadian author, speaker, and creativity theorist. It is a structured approach to solving problems or generating creative ideas that is based in part on Creative Problem Solving (CPS) and NASA's IDEF. The Productive Thinking Model is a framework rather than a technique; that is, various creativity techniques such as brainstorming and lateral thinking can be applied at different stages of the process. Contents 1 Uses 2 The process o 2.1 Step 1: "What's Going On? o 2.2 Step 2: "What's Success?" o 2.3 Step 3: "What's the Question?" o 2.4 Step 4: "Generate Answers" o 2.5 Step 5: "Forge the Solution" o 2.6 Step 6: "Align Resources" 3 Further reading Uses The model is used in groups, businesses, nonprofits as well as by individuals. Aspects of it are taught at various creativity conferences including Mindcamp in Canada, CREA Conference in Europe, and ACRE in South Africa. The nonprofit group Facilitators Without Borders uses the Productive Thinking Model to facilitate problem-solving in communities in need. The process Like CPS, the Productive Thinking Model has six steps. They are: Step 1: "What's Going On? Establishes a context for the problems or opportunities being addressed, exploring different ways of stating the so-called "itch", exploring what factors, circumstances, and entities are involved, and what a solution might look like. 196 There are actually five sub-steps to this phase: "What's the Itch?", generating a long list of perceived problems or opportunities, often re-stating similar ones in several different ways, and then looking for patterns and clusters with the mass in order to select one key "problem" to address "What's the Impact?", digging deeper into the issue and identifying how it affects the world "What's the Information?", describing various aspects of the problem in detail "Who's Involved?", identifying other stakeholders in the issue "What's the Vision?", identifying what would be different if the issue were resolved, in the form of a "wish" statement (e.g., "If only my dog didn't run away when I let him outside.") Step 2: "What's Success?" The second step establishes a vision for a future with the problem solved or the opportunity exploited. In this stage often active imagination is used to imagine, explore, and describe how things would be if the issue were resolved. This vision then informs a process of creating a clearly articulated view of the future, using a tool called "DRIVE", short for: Do - what do you want the solution to do? Restrictions - what must the solution NOT do? Investment - what resources can be invested? Values - what values must you live by? (e.g. environmentally friendly, etc.) Essential outcomes - what are the essential outcomes? Step 3: "What's the Question?" The third step frames the challenge by turning it into a question. This is accomplished through brainstorm-like techniques eliciting as many questions as possible, and then clustering, combining, and choosing the question or questions that seem most stimulating. Step 4: "Generate Answers" Through the use of brainstorming and other idea-generating techniques, the fourth step is designed to create a long list of possible solutions problem question. One of those solutions (or several, combined) is selected for further development. 197 Step 5: "Forge the Solution" Uses a specific tool called "POWER" to develop the selected solution into something more robust. POWER is short for: Postives - what's good about the idea? Objections - what's bad about it? What else? - what does it remind you of? Enhancements - how can what's good about it be made better? Remedies - how can the things that are bad about it be corrected? Step 6: "Align Resources" The final step translates the selected, developed solution into an action plan that may include, among other things: to do lists timelines and milestones lists of people who need to get involved lists of issues that need further work Further reading Hurson, Tim (2007). Think Better: An Innovator's Guide to Productive Thinking. New York, New York: McGraw-Hill. 198 Progressive Hurdles From Mycoted The progressive hurdles technique was developed by Hamilton (1974), was named by VanGundy (1981; 1988) as the Batelle method after the Batelle Institute where it was created. Originally designed to look at ideas for business development opportunities, it presupposes that a fair amount of plausible ideas have been derived from an initial ideagenerating process, and it is now necessary to sort out a small number of ‘best’ ideas to put into practice. It is essential that the chosen ideas are practical and viable, but at the same time ensure that the screening process is clearly rational and impartial, and that it reasonably economical. Progressive hurdles extend the existing well-established method of rapidly discarding the items that can obviously be seen to be of lesser quality (see also Listing Pros and Cons). Thus freeing up time to put all your effort into a handful of promising short-listed ideas, thereby reducing the information-handling load (see also Q-Sort and Paired Comparison). A succession of hurdles are encountered, the first of which being the most inexpensive to operate, so that the highest cost investigations are used only on handful of ideas that have endured all former hurdles. Reference to ‘Cost’ conveys the investment needed to get the information required to evaluate and idea, the four main stages suggested by the method are: 1. The culling stage(s) consist of screens built from low-cost yes/no criteria – e.g. questions such as: ‘Do we have the technology to manufacture this product?’ that can be answered inexpensively from locally obtainable information. These questions may be grouped into sub-stages; e.g. a sub-stage might have 3-4 yes/no questions, and the idea might pass the sub-stage if it gets at least one ‘yes’. Any idea that fails a sub-stage is not developed. 2. The rating stage(s) uses screens of medium-cost (in general a factor of 10 more expensive) criteria, normally in sub-stage groups. The criteria are expected to involve analysis and measurement, though the criterion is still probably a yes/no pass/fail threshold e.g. ‘is the average travelling time for this business opportunity > 10% of working hours’. 3. The scoring stage(s) involves screens that could potentially be yet another factor of 10 more expensive and involve quite complex questions such as whether the return on investment is likely to be poor, medium or good or at broad band estimates of the likely grown rate of the market. These conditions are likely to give numerical measurements with each idea being tested to give a weighted score on each criterion. Combination at set sub-stages gives an overall score, this must 199 exceed a pre-set figure if the idea is to pass the sub-stage hurdle, making it possible for weak points in one area to be traded against strong points in another. 4. The final in-depth analysis involves the few remaining ideas that have endured all the preceding hurdles and can now be subject to a full-cost business and market analysis. 5. Problems can be encountered with this method for example: o You cannot assume the cheapest tests are automatically the best for early screening or it may not be feasible to devise a suitable series of independent tests (e.g. if groups of alternatives are strongly interdependant, or if they are basically different from one another). o The method can also be discredited, e.g. by efforts to misrepresent or avoid the procedure, such as senior people pushing through their pet ideas, or demands to re-evaluate rejected options. 200 Progressive Revelation From Mycoted William Gordon of the Arthur D. Little consulting firm developed the progressive revelation technique (named by VanGundy, 1981; 1988 as the Gordon-Little technique). The problem is initially presented in a very theoretical, non-specific form and the more factual details are made known gradually step-by-step. This avoids premature closure and can help maintain the excitement and novelty of any type of Brainstorming or Brainwriting session so that it doesn’t ‘tail off’. The method is outlined below; it assumes that participants must not already know what the problem is: 1. Explain what is going to happen – i.e. that you are going to present a problem in a very theoretical form initially, because that often makes it easier to thinking openly about it. 2. The presentation of the problem is presented in a very abstract, generalised form. 3. Generating ideas by participants using any appropriate idea generation method. 4. Repeat steps 2-3 when the idea flow slows down, you should go back to step 2 to provide additional information, repeating this cycle and providing increasingly factual information each time until you have finally presented the whole problem. 5. Finally once the full problem has been revealed, the group use the previously generated ideas as triggers to generate actual solutions to the original problem. Example - A problem about car parking might be presented as follows: Extremely abstract and generalised: ‘methods of storing large things’ Slightly less generalised: ‘ways of storing objects weighing over a ton that need to be taken in and out of storage frequently and easily’. Approaching the real problem: ‘what if the objects had wheels and were motorised?’ The actual problem: ‘the actual problem is how to improve on the vehicle parking arrangements for Mycoted and Co’. Issues to take into consideration The procedure needs sensitive handling by the facilitator, participants could be made to feel they are being manipulated as to how they go about the natural thinking processes, therefore it could be beneficial to explain the rationale behind the technique before using it (see step 1 above). 201 Try to avoid biasing the idea generation, choosing the most appropriate stages to reveal further factual information. In the example above once the car-parking problem has been introduced as a storage problem, it is less likely to be seen as a travel problem, as a way of displaying personal wealth or as a security problem, etc. 202 Provocation From Mycoted Provocation is a technique that requires lateral thinking, similar to Random Stimuli, it involves moving your thinking out of the established patterns that you use to solve problems normally. Edward de Bono popularised Provocation by using the word 'Po'. 'Po' stands for 'Provocative operation'. He suggests that when we make a Provocative statement in public we should label it as such with 'Po' (e.g. 'Po: the earth is flat'). This does rely on all members of your audience knowing about Provocation! Generally we think by recognizing patterns and reacting to them, such reactions come from our past experiences and logical extensions to those experiences, all too often we do not venture outside of these patterns. While we may know the answer as part of a different type of problem, the structure of our brains makes it difficult for us to link this in. The technique requires you to make deliberately stupid statements (Provocations), in which something we take for granted about the situation is not true. Statements need to be stupid to shock our minds out of existing ways of thinking. Once we have made a provocative statement, our judgement is then suspended and the statement is used to generate ideas. Provocations give us original starting points for creative thinking. For example, imagine making the statement 'Houses should not have roofs’. Normally this would not be a good idea! However this leads one to think of houses with opening roofs, or houses with glass roofs. These would allow you to lie in bed and look up at the stars. Once you have made the provocative statement, you can use this checklist to examine all its aspects: The consequences of the statement What the benefits would be What special circumstances would make it a sensible solution The principles needed to support it and make it work How it would work moment-to-moment What would happen if a sequence of events was changed Etc. The Provocation technique often helps you to generate completely new concepts. The information on Provocation is Copyright ©The McQuaig Group Inc. Reproduced here by permission from APTT 203 Q-Sort From Mycoted The Q-sorting technique (Stephenson, 1953) helps facilitate the awesome task of ranking or prioritising valuable, complex and partially overlapping items, it reduces information processing demands making it faster and more reliable (ideal for 60-90 items). Less than 40 items, would be best served by alternative methods; beyond 100 items, makes the task tedious and items could possibly pass through unobserved Example A Delphi survey produces 70 items that are to be sorted into 9 levels of importance ranging from most (A) to least important (I) 1. Establish the likely distribution of this amount of items over this number of categories; assuming the importance is a roughly normal distribution (bell-shaped curve) for this ‘population’ of items. With standard statistical tables to work out how 70 randomly selected items would be expected to be distributed over nine equal bands of importance Bands A to I would look like this: A B C D E F G H I Total 2 4 6 13 25 13 4 2 1 70 2. Select items to match this pattern, using the example above, the first 2 ‘most important’ and the 2 ‘least important’ items, should be put in boxes A and I. Followed by choosing the from what remains the 4 ‘most important’ and 4 ‘least important’ items for categories B and H, and so on for C and G, then finally D and F. The remainder goes in category E. 204 Quality Circles From Mycoted Quality circles are regular short meetings set up to aid work-related problems. 5 – 10 people attend the meeting in work time Supervisor is nominated and runs the meeting Flip Charts, audiovisual equipment, notice boards etc… are utilised Problem areas are put forward by the group Problems are prioritised Information is collated, ideas are generated via brainstorming, force-field analysis (see…..) etc… Effectiveness, costs, savings, consequences to other departments etc... considered Final solution is put forward to manager and implemented by the Quality Circle group 205 Random Stimuli From Mycoted Several authors have recommended the use of random stimuli of various kinds (see Creative Thinking, Lateral Thinking, Problem-Solving through Creative Analysis), which suggests there is a fundamental significance for being open to possibilities from everywhere. Although the concept is often used informally, a formal approach may look like this: 1. Identify your criteria for ideas – e.g. ideas for solving a problem or tackling some aspect of it, an idea to be built on, a hypothesis to be investigated, etc. Spend some time on this stage for better-quality outcomes later. 2. Pick a stimulus at random, by looking or listening to everything around you indoors and outdoors, something that catches your attention, opening a newspaper, dictionary, catalogue, book of pictures, throwing a dice at random or any other method that appeals to you. 3. You should now relate this random stimulus back to your original problem; this could be done using simple Free Association 4. On the other hand you could go for a full Excursion, by describing the stimulus (how it works, what it does, what effects it has, how it is used, size, position, etc). Followed by ‘force-fit’ pieces of this comprehensive description back to the problem to recommend relevant ideas. 5. Should a random stimulus fail to work, pick another and keep trying. Some variants to try: Combining fixed and random elements: Choose a specific element of the problem and name it the ‘fixed element’. Now select a random stimulus via any chosen method and free-associate way is which these 2 elements could be combined. You can convey these directly to the problem, or use the 2-element combination itself to trigger additional ideas. Now select a new random stimulus, repeat the process with the same ‘fixed element’ and after several cycles of this choose a fresh fixed element and repeat. Select 2-3 grammatically random stimuli: Noun + verb Adjective + noun Verb + adverb Noun + verb + noun Try to create an unusual phrase, for example if you observed a school and a plane flying overhead, that might yield phrases such ‘flying school’ or ‘teaching flying’. You could 206 free associate further phrase combinations from the one created so ‘flying school’ might generate ‘elevated learning’, etc. Go out of your way to attempt something ‘alternative’ – chat to people you wouldn’t normally choose to (even if it’s the office bore!), stroll round parts of your work place you don’t usually have contact with, if something catches your attention be curious and explore the thought, take different transportation to and from work. When you have found something that seems different, build ideas around it. Encourage incubation: Be aware of the problem, subconsciously in your day-to-day life, as you go for walks, shopping, work or at the gym. Without too much effort, make notes if ideas spring to mind unexpectedly (see also Bunches of Bananas). 207 Rawlinson Brainstorming From Mycoted Rawlinson Brainstorming is useful varient of Brainstorming for untrained groups because there is no interaction between group members, all ideas are directed towards the facilitator/scribe the problem owner simply describes in a headline the problem, he then gives simple background on routes he has tried and have failed, and what would represent an ideal solution the resource (i.e.... all other participants) are invited to have a creative warm-up session and then offer solutions to the problem as two word descriptors the problem owner focuses on those ideas that give him new viewpoints See also: Brainstorming 208 Receptivity to Ideas From Mycoted This technique suggests that you turn around your traditional way of approaching ideas offered from other people that may initially seem ‘half baked’ ‘off the wall’ or naïve. The method recommends that you be more receptive to such ideas as they could contain the seed of a ‘prize’ idea. This thought process is particularly relevant when responding to non-experts, whilst it is accepted that they do not understand the area they are talking about, similarly they are not indoctrinated by conventional wisdom about ‘what cant be done’. Harriman (1988) describe two Synectics techniques to improve receptivity: Paraphrasing Once the speaker has offered his thoughts, repeat them back to him using your own words, but keeping as close as possible to the essence of their idea, for instance you could say ‘If I understand this you are suggesting that…’ Do not evaluate or give an opinion on his thoughts, you are trying to establish a mutual starting point and understanding, evaluation comes at a later stage. If the speaker agrees that what you have repeated, then you can move swiftly on to the next stage. However if this is not the case, get the speaker to explain further, and try again saying something like ‘Ok, let try again, am I right in saying that the core of your idea is that…’ Continue with this paraphrasing until the speaker confirms your understanding. This stage is essential because it double checks you understanding of what is being suggested, but more subtly shows you are interested in what the speaker is saying. Developmental Response After the paraphrasing you need to work towards transforming the idea into a workable solution. Divide your response into positive elements (pros), and negative elements (cons) o Pros should be precise and genuine; listing at least one more pro than come easily, often a valuable avenue of thought is opened by that last, hard-to-give pro. This acknowledges the contribution of the speaker and creates better understanding of the problems components o Cons should be looked at one at a time, phrasing each one so that it encourages solutions; start with ‘how to’, redirecting discussion toward solving the problem. For example if the con is ‘its expensive’ try saying ‘how can we make it less expensive?’ As you consider each con in turn, correcting it will transform the original idea. The final solution may barely resemble the original thought. 209 A developmental response centres attention on the parts of the idea to be preserved, those ideas often overlooked in the initial rush to identify imperfections. It is a process of transformation, going from constructing fresh ideas into ultimate concepts, motivating participants along the way. It expresses a manager’s intention to resolve the problem and aims discussion to what needs to be accomplished, dismissing nobody in the process. 210 Reframing Values From Mycoted Reframing Values is about re-opening choices – for instance much of what we see, as ‘the way that things are’ is really just ‘the way that we choose to see them’. This method could be very useful in reframing SWOT Analysis evaluations. Recognize a concern or issue that you want to work on (e.g. ‘How to improve our school’) Brainstorm bipolar strategic concepts relevant to the concern e.g. o Stagnate/innovate o Grow/decline o Compete/collaborate Select just one of these bipolar concepts that comes across to you as interesting or relevant (e.g. stagnate/innovate) Identify firm examples of each pole from your area of concern – e.g. ‘We haven’t changed our teaching methods for some time’ (stagnate); ‘We have developed the new science hour’ (Innovate). Try to restate each example so that your evaluation of it is reversed but still true for instance: o The unchanged teaching methods could be re-stated as: ‘We have a stable and well understood teaching practise’ o The new science hour could become: ‘We have created a science hour, that we don’t have the time to fit into the timetable’. As both evaluations are true, you can choose which to focus on at any one time. What are the implications of taking the alternative evaluations seriously? Return to Step 3 again, ad lib. The following Zen story (adapted from Vaughan, 1979) demonstrates this theory succinctly: A farmer who had just acquired a stallion came to the Zen master in distress, saying: ‘Master, the horse is gone the horse is gone!’ for the stallion had run away. The master replied: ‘Who know if it is good or bad?’ The farmer returned to his work feeling sad and miserable. Two days later the stallion turned up and brought with him two mares. The farmer was overjoyed and went back to the master, saying: ‘The horse is back and has brought two mares with him!’ The master replied: ‘Who know is it is good or bad?’ Three days later the farmer was back crying, because his only son, his only helper on the farm, had been thrown by one of the mares, and his back had been broken. He was now in plaster and could do no work. Again the master replied: ‘Who know if it is good or bad?’ A few days later, soldiers came conscripting all the young men in the area. But they left the son because he was in plaster… 211 Relational Words From Mycoted This technique takes any existing word(s) and strives to add in relational words (e.g. ‘about, ‘except’, ‘under’, ‘though’ etc.) to modify or expand the meaning of the original word(s), or to encourage further development (devised by Crovitz, 1970 as "Relational Algorithms as described by VanGundy, 1981; 1988)). Below is a table of frequent English relational words: About Above Across After Against Along Amid Among And Around As At Because Before Behind Below Beneath Beside Between Beyond But By Down During Except For From If In Into Near Not Now Of Off On Opposite Or Out Over Past Round Since So Still Then Though Through Throughout To Toward Under Up Upon When Where While With Within Without The method was originally designed to supplement methods that generate word pairs, see ((Attribute Listing)), some forms of ((Random Stimuli)), ((Listing)), ((Morphological Analysis)), and ((Paraphrasing Key words)). For example, should one of these techniques generate the combination: ‘room’ and ‘kettle’ the relational words might suggest idea-stimulating variants such as : Room-beside-kettle Kettle-in-room Room-kettle-within etc. It could also be used as a starting point technique in any form of idea-generation, by taking any suitable idea and adding the relational word. So if you have ‘garage sale’ as an idea, you can explore possible meanings of ideas such as ‘within the garage sale’, ‘garage sale where’ or ‘sale in garage’. Whilst you could use the technique by working through every relational word on the list, the method is almost certainly better used selectively – e.g. by having the words on a wall chart and taking a quick look at them whenever you need inspiration. 212 Relaxation From Mycoted Relaxation techniques are helpful in their own right as anxiety alleviators, however they can also play a significant role in different visualisation methods. Hewitt (1982) describes an array of relaxation methods, though the particular script described below is adapted from Schone (1984). It may be more beneficial for you to dictate the script described below onto a cassette since it is difficult to relax whilst reading the instructions, many similar relaxation tapes are available commercially. You should find a place where you feel secure and comfortable, preferably lying down, close your eyes, begin breathing leisurely and then repeat the following recommended script to yourself (the detailed wording is not critical – it is fine to do it roughly from memory). As you do so, focus your attention on the part of the body being referred to. For instance, when you say ‘relax the left foot’, focus your attention on your left foot and so on up the body. With practice you can learn to accomplish a relaxed state very quickly and so can dispense with the script, however, it is therapeutic in its own right. Script My feet are very relaxed; my left foot is very relaxed, my left ankle is relaxed and as my left foot relaxes, so I am becoming more and more relaxed. Now my left calf muscle is becoming very relaxed, very relaxed indeed, the relaxation is spreading up my left leg and into my left thigh, now the whole of my left leg is extremely relaxed. My feet are very relaxed; my right foot is relaxed, my right ankle is relaxed and my right foot is relaxing, I am becoming more and more calm. Now my right calf muscle is becoming very relaxed, deeply relaxed and the whole of my right leg is extremely relaxed. The relaxed feeling is spreading throughout my body, my pelvis is very relaxed and all the muscles of my stomach are very relaxed, so relaxed, I feel warm and comfortable. It is as though there is something radiant and warm inside me radiating warm glows that are spreading throughout my body, and now my chest muscles are relaxing, I feel my whole body is deeply relaxed. 213 My shoulder muscles are now relaxing, they are very, very comfortable, just as all the other muscles have relaxed and are going to carry on feeling soft. Now the muscles of my left arm are relaxing, they are becoming very limp and less tense, all the muscles in my left arm are feeling very limp and soft, now my left hand is also starting to relax, just like the remainder of my body. The muscles in my right arm feel soft, they feel floppy and relaxed, all the muscles in my right arm are very limp and relaxed, and now my right hand is also starting to relax, just like the remainder of my body. The muscles of my neck are loose, yes they are becoming very relaxed, all the tension is disappearing from my neck and muscles are start to feel limp and floppy. Yes all the muscles in the back of the neck are becoming totally relaxed and now the muscles of my face, ears and around my eyes are relaxing. The muscles of my brow and relaxing, all the muscles of my face and head are so soft just like the rest of my body. 214 Reversals From Mycoted Reversals are a derivative of the idea-generating transformations in Osborn's checklist, and like most of the other conversions in that list (see also Exaggeration) it offers a way of materializing background assumptions, and allowing you to take an alternative view on the problem in hand. There are various combinations of reversal several of which are listed in the table below (using the problem: ‘I require lots of capacity in my Reprographic Department to manage a few key peak loads, but this means that for much of the time much or it is idle’): Type of Reversal Turn problem into opportunity Reverse values Reverse word order Invert problem Reverse phase Example Reprographic over-capacity would let us do X, Y, Z, … Could wasting resources be a good thing? I need peak loads to cope with my capacity The machines are being overused Worry about the peaks, not the offpeak idle time Transpose It is not my problem – it is his responsibility Transpose stereotypes See ‘Bloggs the Bore’ as fascinating The service needs to be less costChange of sign (+/-) effective Reverse roles Exchange manager and operator? Reverse direction of Instead of jobs flowing into Repro, it flow flows into them The 3 ways you can use reversals: Double reversal: Initially the reversal identifies ways to make the situation worse rather than better, you need to recognise why it has been made worse and then rereverse to identify ways in which the situation could be made better in these respects. We can sometimes be constrained in our thinking for instance putting a lot of thought into ‘how to get rich’ but very little effort into ‘how not to become hard-up’. Thus being forced to think about ‘what would make me hard-up?’ and then re-reversing that to say: ‘and so what would prevent me from becoming 215 hard-up will give a very different perspective than directly addressing: ‘how to get rich? Recognising that you currently do these unhelpful things! If you feel that many of the ‘ways to make the situation worse’ are in fact present in the situation in progress, you ought to attempt generating options by investigating ways to eliminate them. Direct importing of solutions: The general method for any form of alteration is to ask yourself: ‘how would I solve the distorted (in this case reversed) situation, and could some adaptation of this solution be functional to the real situation?’ Because the sign of the problem may have been transformed, this process may not work as well with reversal as with, say, exaggeration. A unique account of his technique can be helpful in a group situation where people are required to come up with a decision, but are refuse to give in to it in subtle ways. Ask them, in a lighted hearted way to list as many imaginative ways as they can think of to interfere with the meeting. Encourage humour and when they have finished, ask them to reverse all their methods of interference to create rules of good conduct for the meeting, and to identify the most important. Get the group to charge certain people with checking that these rules are observed. 216 RoleStorming From Mycoted RoleStorming is an evolution of Brainstorming, whereby you take on another identity. It was developed by Griggs (1985) and described by VanGundy (1988). Viewing problems and solutions from a different standpoint. Unusual ‘off the wall’ ideas may seem radical/’silly’ if ‘you’ present them, however, generated by a nameless person removes any embarrassment. Use traditional brainstorming or other idea generating technique as a start point Invent an identity or use that of someone you know Assume that identity or refer to the fictitious person as ‘this person would suggest…..’ Brainstorm (or use other idea-generating techniques) in separate identity Change roles. Now try another identity obviously this can be done many times for many different characters. 217 SCAMMPERR From Mycoted SCAMMPERR (Michael Michalko, Thinkpak) is a check list that helps you to think of changes you can make to an existing product to create a new one. It is an extension of his earlier SCAMPER technique. You can use these changes either as direct suggestions or as starting points for lateral thinking. The changes SCAMMPERR stands for are: S - Substitute - components, materials, people C - Combine - mix, combine with other assemblies or services, integrate A - Adapt - alter, change function, use part of another element M - Magnify - Make it enormous, longer, higher, overstated, added features M - Modify - increase or reduce in scale, change shape, modify attributes (e.g. colour) P - Put to another use E - Eliminate - remove elements, simplify, reduce to core functionality R - Rearrange - change the order, interchange components, change the speed or other pattern. R - Reverse - turn inside out or upside down. 218 SCAMPER From Mycoted The SCAMPER technique (created by Bob Eberle and written about by Michael Michalko) in his excellent book, Thinkertoys, will assist you in thinking of changes you can make to an existing product to create a new one via a checklist, these can either be used directly or as starting points for lateral thinking. The changes SCAMPER stands for are: S - Substitut - components, materials, people C - Combine - mix, combine with other assemblies or services, integrate A - Adapt - alter, change function, use part of another element M - Modify - increase or reduce in scale, change shape, modify attributes (e.g. colour) P - Put to another use E - Eliminate - remove elements, simplify, reduce to core functionality R - Reverse - turn inside out or upside down. Example For instance, imagine that you are a producer of computers and printers, and you are looking for new products. SCAMPER would give you: Substitute – use of high tech materials for specific markets – use high-speed components? Combine – integrate computer and printer, printer and scanner Adapt – put high quality ink in printer, use high quality paper Modify – produce different shape, size and design of printer and computer Put to another use – printers as photocopies or fax machines Eliminate – eliminate speakers, colour screens, colour ink etc… Reverse – make computer desks as well as computers and printers, or computer chairs etc… By using SCAMPER in this instance we have been able to identify possible new products. Many of the ideas may be unfeasible or may not suit the equipment used by the manufacturer, but some ideas could be good starting points for discussion of new products. See also the modified version SCAMMPERR 219 SDI From Mycoted 'Systematized Direct Induction (SDI) was developed by Bosticco (1971) and described by VanGundy (1981; 1988). It is a useful method for tackling ‘people issues’. Workshops involving from 4 up to 100 individuals are organised using members of same or different departments (see also Metaplan Information Market ). This method addresses issues that members of staff may have with ‘change’. Involving staff at the planning stage, allowing them to put forward their ideas and preferred conditions etc… makes the implementation of ‘change’ somewhat smoother. A Planning meeting held by an elected staff member and a small group of the organizational staff will outline the problem/issue, i.e. ‘can we improve our sales performance, if so how’ and decide if which staff (if any) need attend. They need to ensure that the Stakeholders are suitably presented at the meeting. The Meeting 1. Initial Introductions, to encourage inter-departmental mixing and supervisor/supervisee combinations, all staff are encouraged to sit at tables of four. The problem to be addressed is described and displayed and participants are reassured that all suggestions will remain anonymous 2. Practice exercise, a specific coloured slip of paper (say yellow) is issued to all participants. They are requested to ‘identify their main issue in their daily work’, write this on the coloured paper, which are then collected 3. Identifying and discussing the Key problems, another set of differently coloured paper is handed out (say red) with “how to” written across the top. Each individual must now complete the ‘how to’ sentence with what they feel the company does that prohibits the workshop sorting out their highlighted problem. Each table has a 5 – 10 minute ‘buzz’ session discussing their thoughts 4. Identifying up to Four more Problems, Each participant completes another four red slips, completing the ‘how to’ sentence four more times. 5. Ranking the Five Problems, Each participant now ranks their five problems, marking the most important pink slip ‘1’ and the least important ‘5’. 6. Break, Coffee/lunch taken and during the break, yet more slips are placed on each table of a different colour (say green) 7. Cycle of Generating and Discussing Solutions, after the break….. each participant selects their ‘No.1’ pink slip problem, and writes a solution for it on a green slip. Each table has a short ‘buzz’ session discussing their solutions. This process is repeated for all 5 pink slips creating 5 matching green slips. 220 8. Workshop Ends, Each participant clips their pink ‘problem’ slips and green ‘solution’ slips together in a cluster and the workshop closes 9. Subsequent Analysis, Each cluster is collected, collated and analysed to generate a management report. If the workshop was large a small team may be required to do this. Incorporating company staff as well as external consultants will likely affect the final relevance and acceptability of any ‘changes’ that are implemented as a result. 221 SODA From Mycoted The SODA (Strategic Options Development and Analysis) was developed in the late 80's. In summary it is a methodology for helping someone understand the various viewpoints of a problem area. Whilst the detail of any projects is tailored to the specific problem, the general steps are; 1. Planning meetings: Where the project is set up and an initial view of the problem / situation is achieved. At this point it is important to decide who the participants will be and what the outputs will be in order to manage expectations. 2. Client interviews: Here the key people involved with the issue are interviewed, in a relaxed format, for an hour or so to obtain their individual views of the problem area / situation. 3. Development of causal maps: Causal mapping is used to get depict the interviewee’s perception of the situation. 4. Check-back interviews: To check with the interviewees that the causal maps have correctly interpreted their views. If not, they are modified until they are a true representation. 5. Merging the maps: The individual maps are combined to form a single map. 6. Presentation: Both the individual and combined maps are presented to the participants, and the merged map is worked on until everyone finds it acceptable. This is best done on a computer with projector, or using several computers and appropriate software. This allows the whole group to understand all the viewpoints and to have ownership of the final map. 7. Interpret the map in terms of goals, strategies and tactics: The completed, agreed, map can be used to determine the; o High level goals – these are usually where the causal arrow-heads that emerge from the map but don’t go any further. o Medium level strategies - these are generally the factors that feed in more or less directly to the goals. o Low level tactics and operational targets - these are typically the activities that feed into the medium level strategies. They are often located at where causal arrows tend to come in from the wider environment. 8. Action selection, allocation and implementation: Now that the goals, strategies and targets have been determined, these need to be allocated to people for implementation 222 SWOT Analysis From Mycoted A successful technique for identifying your Strengths and Weaknesses and study any Opportunities and Threats you face. The SWOT Analysis requires you to write down answers to the following questions: Strengths, what do you do well? What are your advantages?.. Consider this from your point of view and that of others. Be realistic but not modest, add to this a list of your characteristics, hopefully some of these will be strengths. Weaknesses, What is done badly? What could be improved? What should be avoided? Consider this question from and internal and external perspective – is it possible others see weaknesses you do not? Are your competitors doing better? Be realistic, looking any unpleasant truths face on. Opportunities, What are the interesting trends? Where are the opportunities available to you? o Useful opportunities can arise from New technology, changes in the market place Alterations in government policies related to your field Changes in social patterns, population profiles, lifestyle changes etc. Local event Threats, what obstacles to you face? How are your competitors fairing? Could changes in technology threaten your position? Do you have bad debt or cash-flow problems Strengths and Weaknessess are internal factors Opportunities and Threats are external factors - often identified through PEST or PESTLE analysis SWOT techniques can be used on: Individuals - for development or career decisions Teams - for development and performance management Organizations for business planning, strategic decision making External Links [1] Business Balls - SWOT [2] RapidBI - SWOT Templates [3] Wikipedia - SWOT [4] RapidBI - PESTLE Analysis template [5] Wikipedia - PEST analysis 223 Sculptures From Mycoted This technique entails physical production of a 3-dimensional theoretical ‘sculpture’ of a problem and promoting physical activity, collaborative work and the playful attribution of new meanings to physical materials (originally described by Ole Faafeng of the Norwegian Management Institute). Reaction to particular media varies widely from person to person, but in reality ‘paper and pen’ representations (drawing, word lists, etc.) for idea-generation are usually the most convenient (see Component Detailing, Drawing, Essay Writing, Story Writing, BrainSketching, Visual Brainstorming). The representation of a problem by the use of any new means (i.e. music or dance) can help bring unspoken imagery and understanding to the surface and supply a wealthy means of expression for discussion and idea generation. A more elaborate and time-consuming exercise such as 3-dimensional construction might be worth including: If it feels appropriate to introduce a different medium or mode of working, perhaps to create a change of mood or tempo If you want to use task strangeness as a creativity trigger If practical construction is a preferred expressive medium for these participants If a team-building element is needed – group construction work can be good for this. Of course individuals could construct their own sculptures, but Faafeng describes a group approach. Advance Preparation Assemble a wide range of materials that could be included in the sculpture, such as: Tools (scissors, felt-tipped pens, pencils, etc). Joining materials (glue, sticky tape, string, staplers, etc). Sculpting materials (paper, cardboard boxes, wire, paper-clips, bits of wood, garden canes, modelling clay, objects like tin cans, small items of furniture like waste-bins that may be to hand) Encourage group members to bring along material they have gathered themselves A possible procedure 1. Familiarisation of the problem with open group discussions, including any work they may already have been attempted on the problem. 224 2. The facilitator clarifies the task and sets an overall time limit. 3. Alternatively this exercise could be combined with a walking Excursion (qv) activity in which participants gather materials they find and that strike them as interesting – e.g. natural objects such as leaves or branches, or found objects like old keys, magazines, or used drink cartons. 4. A little time can now be spent by the group experimenting to see what can be done with the tools and materials they have so far. 5. The group then starts to assemble a sculpture that is felt to characterize some feature or property of the problem situation. It is probably best if the sculpture simply ‘emerges’ in a relaxed and crude way as the group collectively and individually work with the materials, rather than being formally designed and planned. There is no requirement for an explanation as to why they think it represents the problem situation, and can be as serious or as light-hearted as the group wish. 6. A break would be appropriate when the time limit is up. 7. Participants then return to the work area and spend a few moments considering their sculpture, writing down privately any solution ideas that the sculpture and the experience of building it suggest to them. 8. Once the flow of ideas slows down, those that they have come up with are shared with the rest of the group via a round robin, leading to open discussion and brainstorming. 225 Search Conference From Mycoted The Search Conference technique (Williams, 1979) is useful for both problem solving or planning. Aimed towards the stakeholders of a system to help develop mutual perceptions of their existing circumstances, their desired future, and how to get there by drawing on their experiences and values and assembling their knowledge of the system and its environment. Each search conference involves the following steps, which can be adapted locally where required: 1. Participants are requested to give their views of trends in society as a whole. 2. Responses are combined to provide a picture of ongoing changes in their environment over which they have little direct control. 3. Participants look at the development of their own organisation or community, and make worthwhile judgements with respect to any aspirations. 4. Constraints of restricted resources and existing structure and culture are then reviewed. 5. The group formulate strategies for planned adaptation. 6. The group deliberate the steps necessary to initiate the agreed-upon changes. 7. 3 characteristics of this process appear to enhance creativity: o The encouragement of a new and broader perspective by looking initially at the environment rather than the system involved. o Focussing on desired futures rather than on current constraints. o The requirement for stakeholders to confront and synthesize conflicting views into a mutually satisfying design of and plan for the future 8. Observe the distinction between this approach of visualising where your world is going and then considering how best to fit into, as distinct from the standard creative problem-solving process where you choose a particular future you want, and then try to see how to achieve it. This method ‘goes with the flow’ rather than trying to direct the way the flow happens. 226 Sequential-Attributes Matrix From Mycoted The sequential-attributes matrix, originally developed by J.D.Brooks, simply applies product modification checklists to items that consist of a sequentially connected element – for instance a production process, an administrative procedure, or a problem-solving method. It is also useful for physically connected sequences of components (e.g. a drill can be thought of as an interdependent sequence: hole, handle, screw, plug, power) Checklists such as Osborn's Checklist, and many of the attribute based idea-generating methods, are inclined to handle lists of components and attributes as if each item could be altered independently of the others. However, this is rarely true, and in cases where the components are stages in an overall process, interdependence is particularly strong. Whilst Brooks’ method does not give a great deal of help in its handling of sequential constraints, it at least draws attention to their existence. Checklist of generic modifications(any suitable checklist would do) Stages in a Eliminate Substitute Rearrange Combine Increase Decrease Separate process Loaf of x x bread Take out a x x slice of bread Put the bread x x in the toaster Set the time x x x you require Toast until the timer x x x x x pops the toast out 227 Table for applying a checklist to a set of sequentially constrained items 1. Create a 2-dimensional table as above and a checklist of generic modifications listed across the top (though any equivalent checklist, such as Osborn's Checklist, would suffice) 2. Review each stage in turn applying the checklist, think about how it might be adapted, bearing in mind that each stage id dependant on its neighbours. 3. Study the order in its entirety and see if it can be altered or changed around in any way. 4. Select any of these modifications, (or combinations of them) which appear of significance. 5. Apply any appropriate idea-generating and evaluation methods to work out ways of achieving these changes and to identify the most promising. 228 Similarities and Differences From Mycoted Similarities and Differences tries to free your thoughts from their usual tracks by deliberately introducing the unusual and strange. Therefore if you think that the technique sounds weird and you feel strange doing it - its working. The process Start by deciding on your problem as an object, rather than an action. Then decide on another object. This can be anything, but things of an organic nature often work best. Write down all the similarities you can think of between your problem object and the comparison object. This can be as simple as they are both white, and can include actions they perform or abstract characteristics they have. Once you have run out of similarities, start on a list of differences. These should refer to actual characteristics of one object or the other and is likely to result in a much longer list. Once you have a completed list you can group similar elements together. It is then a case of first looking at the similarities and determining if the functionality completely overlaps, or if the missing elements might add to your original problem object. You can then move on to the differences and determining whether the way that a function or characteristic is exhibited by the two objects can be used to provide new ideas for your problem object. An Example Perhaps your problem object is an IR (Infra Red) sensor, and your comparison object is the human eye. These have obvious similarities (optical system, image forming, delicate, etc.) which suggest that the two are closely related. From the similarities the question comes as to the moving of the human eye vs the fixed nature of some IR sensor. From the differences other questions arise. The human eye has variable resolution across its field of vision, the IR sensor may not. The human eye constantly maintains small movements which can be used to enhance apparent resolution (literally taking another look), but vibration may be seen as a fault in an IR sensor. The human eye usually comes in pairs, but the IR sensor is usually singular? 229 Conclusion Taking these finding together gives the innovator the opportunity to think outside their usual understanding and potentially find new ideas for further investigation. 230 Simple Rating Methods From Mycoted The two simple rating method techniques described here are used for the initial sorting of large numbers of ideas, they are very useful for quick initial screening, but both the approaches have the disadvantage that they may lead to a rather superficial and potentially unreliable sorting of ideas and may ignore other criteria. The v?W approach can be more realistic in that v is only used for cases where implementation is relatively obvious, the other two categories reflect intuitive appeal, rather than objective evaluation (see Anonymous voting) Simple/Hard/Difficult (Moore, 1962) The creativity group are expected to work through their list of ideas and make judgements as to the priority rating they feel is appropriate, each idea should be marked: Simple: Feasible with a minimum of time and money. Hard: Feasible, but a will be more expensive. Difficult: Feasible but much more expensive. v?W Note: the v here should really be a tick, I've put it as a v to make sure it diplays on all screens Comparable to the above method but aimed at cases where the creativity team will do their own evaluation, so the criteria are much closer to the creative process: v: ideas that are feasible as they stand, they are generally ideas you would be happy to show to the client. ?: ideas that are not feasible as they stand, but have potential with more thought or research, or in the future, or under special circumstances. W: stands for ‘weirdos’ – ideas that are bizarre and totally unfeasible as they stand, but have the potential as De Bono intermediate impossibilities’ for further idea generation (see Using 'Crazy' ideas ). 231 Simplex From Mycoted This technique is an industrial-strength creativity tool, which takes the DO IT method to the next level of sophistication. Rather than seeing creativity as a single straight-line process, Simplex views it as the uninterrupted cycle it should be, where completion and implementation of one cycle of creativity leads straight into the next cycle of creative improvement (see the 8 stage cycle that simplex uses below) Problem Finding Discovering the right problem to resolve is the most difficult part of the creative process. The problem may be obvious or need to be flushed out using rigger question such as: What would your customers want you to improve? What could they be doing better if we could help them? Who else could we help using our core competences? What small problems do we have which could grow into bigger ones? What slows our work or makes it more difficult? What do we often fail to achieve? How can we improve quality? What are our competitors doing that we could do? What is frustrating and irritating? These questions deal with problems that exist now. At this stage you may not have enough information to formulate your problem precisely. Do not worry about this until step 3! 232 Fact Finding The next phase is to locate as much information relating to the problem as possible. This gives you the depth of knowledge you need to: Use the best ideas your competitors have had Understand customers needs in more detail Know what has already been tried Fully understand any processes, components, services or technologies that you may need to use Ensure that the benefits of solving the problem will be worth the effort you will put into it This phase also involves assessing the quality of the information that you have. Here it is worth listing your assumptions and checking that they are correct. Problem definition You should now have a rough idea of what the problem is and should have a good understanding of the facts relating to it. You should now develop the exact problem or problems you want to resolve. It is essential to solve a problem at the precise level. If you ask questions that are too broad, then you will never have enough resources to answer them effectively. If you ask questions that are too narrow, you may end up fixing symptoms of a problem, rather than the problem itself. Min Basadur (who created the Simplex Process) suggests using the question 'Why?' to broaden a question, and 'What's stopping you?' to narrow it. For example, if your problem is one of plants overgrowing, ask 'Why do I want to kill them off?' This may broaden the question to 'How can I maintain the quality of our environment? Idea Finding This phase requires you to generate as many ideas as possible; this can be done using any range of techniques from asking other people for their opinions, through programmed creativity tools and lateral thinking techniques to Brainstorming. Remember bad ideas often trigger good ones. Selection & Evaluation Once you have come up with a variety of possible solutions to your problem, it is time to decide on the best one. The top solution may be obvious, if it is not, then it is important to think through the criteria you will use to select the best idea. There are several good methods for this, particularly useful techniques may be Decision Trees, Paired Comparison Analysis and Grid Analysis. 233 When you have chosen an idea develop it as far as possible. Then it is essential to evaluate it to see if it is good enough to be worth using. It is important not to let your ego get in the way of your common sense. If your idea does not give big enough benefit, then either see if you can generate more ideas, or restart the whole process. You can waste years of your life developing creative ideas that no one wants. Planning Now you have selected an idea, and are confident that your idea is worthwhile, this is the time to plan its implementation. The best way of doing this is to set this out as an Action Plan, which lays out the Who, What, When, Where, Why and How of making it work. For large projects it may be worth using more formal planning techniques. Sell Idea Up to this stage you may have done all this work on your own or with a small team. Now you will have to sell the idea to the people who have to maintain it. This might be your boss, a bank manager or other people involved with the project. In selling the project you will have to deal with not only the practicality of the project, but also things such internal politics, hidden fear of change, etc. Action Finally, after all the creativity and preparation, comes action! This is where all the careful work and planning pays off. Now the action is securely under way, return to stage 1, Problem finding, to continue improving your idea. 234 Six Thinking Hats From Mycoted Early in the 1980s Dr. Edward de Bono invented the Six Thinking Hats method. The method is a framework for thinking and can incorporate lateral thinking. Valuable judgmental thinking has its place in the system but is not allowed to dominate as in normal thinking. Dr. de Bono organized a network of authorized trainers to introduce the Six Thinking Hats. Advanced Practical Thinking (APTT), of Des Moines, Iowa USA, licenses the training in all parts of the world except Canada (and now, Europe). APTT organizes the trainers and supplies the only training materials written and authorized by Dr. de Bono. The six hats represent six modes of thinking and are directions to think rather than labels for thinking. That is, the hats are used proactively rather than reactively. The method promotes fuller input from more people. In de Bono's words it "separates ego from performance". Everyone is able to contribute to the exploration without denting egos as they are just using the yellow hat or whatever hat. The six hats system encourages performance rather than ego defense. People can contribute under any hat even though they initially support the opposite view. The key point is that a hat is a direction to think rather than a label for thinking. The key theoretical reasons to use the Six Thinking Hats are to: encourage Parallel Thinking encourage full-spectrum thinking separate ego from performance There are six metaphorical hats and the thinker can put on or take off one of these hats to indicate the type of thinking being used. This putting on and taking off is essential. The hats must never be used to categorize individuals, even though their behavior may seem to invite this. When done in group, everybody wear the same hat at the same time. White Hat thinking This covers facts, figures, information needs and gaps. "I think we need some white hat thinking at this point..." means Let's drop the arguments and proposals, and look at the data base." 235 Red Hat thinking This covers intuition, feelings and emotions. The red hat allows the thinker to put forward an intuition without any ned to justify it. "Putting on my red hat, I think this is a terrible proposal." Ususally feelings and intuition can only be introduced into a discussion if they are supported by logic. Usually the feeling is genuine but the logic is spurious.The red hat gives full permission to a thinker to put forward his or her feelings on the subject at the moment. Black Hat thinking This is the hat of judgment and caution. It is a most valuable hat. It is not in any sense an inferior or negative hat. The rior or negative hat. The black hat is used to point out why a suggestion does not fit the facts, the available experience, the system in use, or the policy that is being followed. The black hat must always be logical. Yellow Hat thinking This is the logical positive. Why something will work and why it will offer benefits. It can be used in looking forward to the results of some proposed action, but can also be used to find something of value in what has already happened. Green Hat thinking This is the hat of creativity, alternatives, proposals, what is interesting, provocations and changes. Blue Hat thinking 236 This is the overview or process control hat. It looks not at the subject itself but at the 'thinking' about the subject. "Putting on my blue hat, I feel we should do some more green hat thinking at this point." In technical terms, the blue hat is concerned with metacognition. --- The information on "Six Thinking Hats" is Copyright ©The McQuaig Group Inc. Reproduced here by permission from APTT 237 Slice and Dice From Mycoted Slice and Dice is an Attribute Listing technique by Michael Michalko and is defined in detail in his book Thinkertoys. The process is 1. 2. 3. 4. State the problem Analyse the problem and list as many attributes as you can Take each attribute at a time and try thinking of ways to change or improve it. Strive to make your thinking more fluent & flexible. 238 Snowball Technique From Mycoted Involves concentrating groups of ideas pertaining to the same problem and assigning them a theme, i.e. One slip of paper (or ‘post-its’) is used per idea generated or possible solution offered A meeting is set up of up to 5 people. The slips of paper are viewed and then grouped ‘like with like’. Duplicates can be created if the idea/solution is relevant to more than one group Patterns and relationships in the groups are observed 239 Soft Systems Method From Mycoted 1. Rich Picture - Create a rich picture of the environment, from different viewpoints, in an unstructured way. 2. Identify thematic issues - Identify the general themes that appear from the rich picture. 3. Relevant Systems - Select one issue / theme, and name it. 4. Root Definitions - use CATWOE or similar to define the core of the system 5. Conceptual models - create a model of what is needed by the system (not how it does it). 6. Comparison - Compare the conceptual model (5) with the themes (2) and determine what is done well, badly etc. 7. Agenda for Debate - use the information from the comparison (6) to write the agenda. 8. Debate - debate the desirable / feasible changes proposed. 9. Implement - Implement the changes agreed. References Systems Thinking, Systems Practice. Peter Checkland, 1981 240 Stakeholder Analysis From Mycoted Stakeholder Analysis (Mason and Mitroff, 1981) looks at how groups of people might affect the outcomes of a proposal by the way they react. To identify stakeholders the following checklist may prove useful: Who are the sources of reaction or discontent to what is going on? Who have relevant positional responsibility? Who do others regard as ‘important’ actors’? Who participate in activities? Who shape or influence opinions about the issues involved? Who fall in demographic groups affected by the problem? Who have clear roles in the situation (e.g. customer, friend, adviser)? Who are in areas adjacent to the situation? Using a matrix like the one below, stakeholders can be plotted and categorised both by the chance of their affecting the situation, and by the scale of impact they would have if they did. Should any quadrant in the matrix appear empty, check that you have really included everyone, or plot the scale of the stakeholders influence (high or low) against whether they would support or oppose your project. Impact Unlikely Impact, if it occurred,Would be high Chairman of the Board Chief accountant Impact, if it occurred,Would be low Reprographics Department Impact Likely My manager Key customer My secretary Listing any assumptions that stakeholders are making could prove helpful e.g. using Assumption Surfacing, carefully assess the list, especially in relation to the stakeholder for whom they have been derived. Ask yourself does this actor have any special power in the situation, and if so are there any of his or her assumptions that could have a considerable effect on your project? How could this stakeholder be influenced to change their point or course of action. 241 Sticking Dots From Mycoted A popular, quick method for determining priorities by voting. Ideas are itemised clearly on a flip chart (or similar aid). Nameless voting tends to work best. Give each group a different coloured set of dots, i.e. group A have red dots. Give each indicidual or group a number of dots (say 10 each) Allow the group time to deliberate over the ideas they wish to vote for. Once all the groups are ready, one person from the group sticks their dots by their preferred top ideas. In some variations, there is no maximum number of votes an individual / group cn give to one idea. Once all the dots are placed, all the groups enter into a discussion on any patterns, and general observations. A short-list of the top 5 is made This is not a deeply analytic method, but a short, sharp measure of the current thinking of the task in hand 242 Stimulus Analysis From Mycoted A method whereby digressing from the original problem to stimulate alternative ideas may generate an accidental solution. Identify the problem and enter into a discussion Produce a list (10 or more) of arbitrary ideas totally unrelated to the problem. Select one of the ideas and discuss in detail all its characteristics. Look at each on of these characteristics and go into finer detail trying to generate yet more ideas. Continue through all 10 original ideas till you have exhausted all further ideas. Finally analyse the final (lengthy) list of ideas in any applicable way 243 Story Writing From Mycoted Examining how you instinctively react in a given situation could be a path to understanding feelings and thoughts you find difficult to put into words. Thus, giving you insight into your own deeper motives, and acting as warning signs of personal anxieties and frailties that may affect how well you can respond. This are could be accessed by creating or finding a story or parable that is clearly fictional, but nevertheless has some parallels to a real situation you are facing. Ideally you would tell it yourself (or you could draw your own picture of – see Drawing – whichever you feel most comfortable with). There are no requirements for technical skill (stick figure drawings or amateur narration are ample), or for anyone else to see it or read it if you don’t want them to, though it is usually more productive if you can get someone else’s understanding reactions. As the story is clearly not an objective description of your actual situation, you are at liberty to be entirely subjective – you can make things happen as you wish them to, you can present things in particular ways just because they ‘feel right’ that way, you can note what has to happen to you to feel comfortable and how you react to things that make you uncomfortable and so. You are definitely not saying that ‘this is what will happen’, but you are, tentatively, holding it up as a mirror to yourself, and noting the sorts of beliefs; expectations, feelings, judgements, anxieties, reactions, etc. that you may well find yourself bringing to such a situation. Putting it into words in this way makes it easier to describe your concern to others, and may increase the range of metaphors and images you can use naturally in talking to others. Should some areas of the story summon strong feelings, this may suggest a need for finding positive ways to handle similar feelings in the real situation, for instance, getting a colleague to help you out in situations you may not handle too well. Similarly, if you find yourself being judgemental about someone in your story, you may need to develop some way to help yourself see such people more compassionately. In time you may become aware of cultural assumptions and expectations – what ‘ought’ or ‘ought not’ to happen by your (but perhaps not other people’s) conventions. If you are working with someone else (who preferably had done the same as you, so that you are each supporting the other) show them your picture or story, tell them about it, let 244 them ask questions, and say what they find striking. Work jointly to unpack the fundamental beliefs, expectations, feelings, judgements, anxieties, reactions, etc. and to see what needs to be done. To use it on your own, pin it up on a wall where you can see it, and over a period of days, not down any features of the story or drawing that strike you as interesting. 245 Strategic Assumption Testing From Mycoted Strategic Assumption Testing examines other people’s opinions and assumptions to ensure they are consistent. Stakeholder Identification, list those involved as stakeholders. If in groups, each group should make their own list privately and then collate. Identify Factions, if necessary group stakeholders into factions, ‘points of view’ or ‘interests’. Group Formation, establish one or more working groups from the ‘sub-groups’ (steps 4 – 7). Assumption Surfacing, in each sub-group, discuss each stakeholders reasons (assumptions) and prioritise them. Assumption Testing, members of the sub-groups debate if these assumptions were reversed and it made no difference should we ignore it. Assumption Ranking, member of the sub-group rank their assumptions: Effect if the assumption occurred Possibility of it occurring Results are exhibited as a 2 x 2 matrix of High/Low potential versus Likely/Unlikely occurrence. Action Planning, members of the sub groups analyse the 2 x 2 matrix and its possible consequences. Inter-Group Debate, each sub group puts forward their 2 x 2 matrix and plan, this generates an open debate. Issues are identified and fundamental assumptions are challenged. Ultimately a common ground is sought. 246 Strategic Choice Approach From Mycoted When Planning Under Pressure: The Strategic Choice Approach by John Friend and Allen Hickling appeared in 1987, it was the first mature exposition of the Strategic Choice Approach. Since then, the approach has been gathering support among decision makers, while also becoming widely taught in management, planning and policy schools. A repetitive technique used for complex problems and their sub-problems, consisting of 4 basic principles Shaping, involves identifying the problem areas Designing, recognising what can be done, looking at possibilities and drawbacks. Comparing, various ideas, evaluating the best possible way forward Choosing, the best ideas for solving the problems. Compiling a plan of action, acknowledging any uncertainties. 247 Strategic Management Process From Mycoted This is a six-stage process, run in-house usually by a Strategic Management Group. It is supported by various consultants and accessible to external stakeholders. A useful method for public and voluntary organizations 1. Historical context, examination of previous trends and the emergence of a future vision for the way ahead 2. Situational Assessment, blame free SWOT Analysis of the present situation 3. Strategic Issue Agenda, identify issues from points 1 and 2 above and acknowledge the relationships that exist between points 4-7 4. Strategic Options, define as many positive solutions to meet the SWOT analysis and future vision. Define strategies, and outline costs, feasibility, acceptability and effectiveness. 5. Feasibility Assessment, a selection of strategies is examined through Stakeholder Analysis and Resource Analysis. 6. Implementation, to evaluate the stakeholders’ predictions, a serious of evaluation programmes are devised. Within each stage above, 3 basic steps are followed Search, for ideas and information Synthesis, observation of patterns, trends Selection, determine priorities for action Within these 3 basic steps, 4 alternative criteria are used to assist using the best technique Quality Acceptance Innovation Preservation 248 Successive Element Integration From Mycoted Successive Element Integration generates solutions by gradually developing all ideas into lists of ideas – a form of constructive evaluation, allowing every idea a value (see also Receptivity to Ideas) A group of approximately 6 individually jot down their own list of ideas for solving a specific problem Two members of each group read out one of their ideas, the remaining members try to integrate the two offered ideas into a third idea (this is added to the overall list) A third member of the group offers an idea, which is integrated by the other members of the group with the previous ideas to create a fourth idea. This stage is repeated until all ideas are exhausted and detailed on the overall list. Overall, this is a good method for generating ideas In the latter stages of idea generating, the ‘best of ideas’ can be integrated with each other to create a list of exceptional ideas The advantages of this method are The skill of building upon other peoples ideas Encourages constructive convergence Ensures all ideas are carefully considered 249 SuperGroup From Mycoted This method is primarily used for ‘new-product’ development. The ‘new-product’ status often justifies an increased level of expenditure. Clusters of consumers from a specific market area meet to determine the needs and inclination of their market area. The cluster should meet the following 3 criteria Representativeness, as a focal group, the individuals should be representative of their particular market area i.e. ‘general domestic consumers’, or clientorganisation personnel’ etc. Demonstrable Creativity, all individuals selected should be demonstrably creative – i.e. score well on creativity tests (or similar) or be reputed for imaginative thinking. Training in a Suitable Method, each individual should have some background in creative problem solving This ‘super-group’ then generates ideas based on the Creative problem solving - CPS method. It is the chosen individuals in the group, their background training and skills that characterise this distinctive approach and not the actual procedure used. 250 SuperHeroes From Mycoted SuperHeroes is really a fantasy-based version of ((RoleStorming)) is similar to other boundary-stretching techniques such as Exaggeration and Reversals and is a form of Excursions. Participants pretend to be a fictional (or real) super-hero (Superman, the Incredible Hulk, Batman, James Bond, Wonder Woman, Sherlock Holmes, Spiderman, etc.) and use their ‘super’ characteristics to trigger ideas. This technique is good for creating an atmosphere of light-hearted fun in which energy is high and fantasy and metaphor are acceptable. All ‘super-heroes’ have skills and capacities that are outside ‘normal’ behaviour, this means that (a) people tend to think outside of the norm and (b) having a role allows people to express more unusual ideas that they might not normally express. Super-hero stories also have strong elements of wish-fulfilment, and can therefore help people to express wishes It may be less suitable for very ‘serious’ or introverted groups, or low trust conditions, where RoleStorming would be more suitable. 1. Prepare in advance a set of general information on each superhero. This could include name, special powers, weaknesses, pen picture, background, picture etc. You can also provide props if you have an extravert group. 2. Display and discuss the problem to ensure everyone understands the issue. It can be useful to use Brainstorming or BrainWriting to list the more obvious ideas. 3. Selects a superhero for each participant (they can choose one themselves, or from your information pack). Get them to think a little about that superhero and talk to them about what life is like as a superhero in order to help them get into the role. 4. The super hero characters are then used as the basis of an excursion, from any viewpoint (see Observer and Merged Viewpoints). More extravert groups will get into the role (I will heat the chemicals instantly with my laser eyes whilst freezing the container with by breath…). More introvert groups will tend to be happier talking in the third person (Superman could heat the chemicals with his laser eyes…). 5. Start by getting each super hero to voice a few ideas. 6. Allow other super heroes to trigger off the others ideas. Perhaps if superman and wonder woman worked together they could produce an improved solution. 7. When you have sufficient ideas, evaluate them as usual. Watch a demonstration of this technique by UC Berkeley Students: 251 1. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MRAkK86xgh4 2. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cTw8FXj1g1c 252 Synectics From Mycoted Synectics is based on a simple concept for problem solving and creative thinking - you need to generate ideas, and you need to evaluate ideas. Whilst this may be stating the obvious the methods used to perform these two tasks are extremely powerful. Preliminary planning In advance, hold a preliminary planning meeting with the problem owner(s). This checks that there are genuine problem owners, wanting new options that they themselves can implement, within their authority; helps you to understand the problem-owners' perceptions of the problem area; gives a feel for the number and quality of solutions needed; helps to ensure realistic expectations about results; and allows you to agree team membership. Procedure during the session 1. Problem owner provides headline and wish: They describes the issue, how it is experienced, the background, what has been tried, and the possible scope of action. It is then expressed in one or more ‘big wish’ statements of the form: ‘I wish (IW)...’ or ‘How to (H2) ...’. NB that this is not a ‘problem definition’ but a wish reflecting the way the issue is experienced. The group listen imaginatively, rather than analytically. 2. Group generates large numbers of ‘springboards’: The mood here should be expansive and unconstrained. The springboards use the same formats as the ‘big wish’ (IW, H2, etc.). They are not ideas for solutions, but articulate further wishes to open up space for invention: ‘It would be nice if we could do X but we don’t yet know how to.’. A wide range of springboard triggering techniques have been developed, e.g. various uses of Analogies; various types of Excursions; the essential paradox/book title technique, and others ( Free Association, Random Stimuli, Drawing techniques, etc.) 3. Select an interesting springboard: The mood now switches to a more focused approach than in Steps 1-2. Problem owner and group members choose their favourite springboards (more on the basis of interest or appeal than on the basis of logical relevance). They share their choices, but final choice rests with the problem-owner. However, the process can always be repeated, so the choice is not critical. The assumption is that within any springboard will be creative possibilities that can usefully be explored. 4. Ideas to help achieve the selected springboard are generated, using the trigger techniques mentioned in Step 2 (or any other idea-generation methods). The problem-owner selects some that seem interesting. 253 5. Check understanding of these by paraphrasing them and checking with their authors until the paraphrase is correct. An idea is selected for the Itemised Response. 6. Itemised response. Every conceivable positive features of the selected idea is listed. Then (and only then), a single concern / problem / issue is expressed as a problem for solution (e.g. ‘How to ...’). Solutions for these are expressed by all in terms of ‘What you do is (WYDI)...’. 7. Recycle or end: Back to 4. until sufficient ideas for this spring board have been explored. Then back to 3. for another springboard. Cycle until the problem-solver has a solution s/he is happy to run with, or until time runs out. 254 Systematic Inventive Thinking From Mycoted Historically, both Systematic Inventive Thinking (SIT) and TRIZ, like all methods derived from the original ARIZ, descend from the pioneering work of Genrich Altschuller. They all share a basic underlying assumption - that innovative solutions share common patterns, that these patterns can be translated into a set of Thinking Tools, and that we can use these Tools to generate new creative ideas. But in spite of their common heritage, SIT is quite different from TRIZ in several crucial ways, especially in terms of practical application. These are some differences between the methods: SIT uses a minimal set of tools, principles, and guidelines. There are six basic principles and five thinking tools (plus two more for MarCom and Advertising), versus the dozens or at times hundreds in TRIZ-based methods. Thus, SIT is much simpler to learn and use. SIT's steamlined structure shortens the path to a desired result, and significantly reduces training time, including training of trainers. SIT's toolbox is more compact and streamlined, because SIT is a pure thinking method. We're able to use the same tools in nearly unlimited areas, without recourse to a database of any kind (versus the large data base of effects and examples in TRIZ). SIT is applicable to a variety of fields, and is not limited by a set of examples within one domain, the method has been applied to a wide range of areas: New Product Development, Problem Solving, Marketing Communications, Advertising, Strategy, and Conflict Resolution. SIT has been proven successful for products and services, and as a method for enhancing organizations' overall innovative abilities. External links Systematic Inventive Thinking website 255 TILMAG From Mycoted TILMAG "Transformation idealer Lösungselemente mit Assoziationen und Gemeinsamkeiten"., created by Helmut Schlicksupp, roughly translates from the German as "transformation of ideal solution elements with a common associations matrix". Contents 1 Overview 2 More detailed explanation o 2.1 Step 1: State the problem clearly o 2.2 Step 2: Identify / define Ideal Solution Elements (ISE's). o 2.3 Step 3: Construct an association matrix; write the ISE's on each axis o 2.4 Step 4: Brainstorm and record associations for each paired ISE o 2.5 Step 5: Bring it back to the original problem. o 2.6 Step 6: Bring together the best ideas Overview The process starts with the problem definition. Once the problem is defined, then you identify and define the ideal solution elements (ISE), which are then used to construct a matrix. Connecting 2 or more of the Ideal Solution Elements, provides associations that are then transferred back to the problem to provide possible solutions. More detailed explanation Step 1: State the problem clearly use Backwards Forwards Planning or similar technique to clearly identify the problem use Brainstorming or BrainWriting to identify the most obvious ideas for solutions. An example could be "to provide the ideal hotel" Step 2: Identify / define Ideal Solution Elements (ISE's). TILMAG is much more of a targeted process than many other creativity tools and it tries to use the ideal solution as a starting point. The team identifies the ISE, which is a function or attribute that the final solution must have. Create no more than 6 ISE's, these should be o Described in a positive manner o free of jargon 256 o o o specific to the problem brief, but precise (fewer than 6 words) linked to customer demands (if developing a new product / service) Examples could be "Feels like home" and "designed for the target market" Step 3: Construct an association matrix; write the ISE's on each axis The matrix size will depend on the number of ISE's List all ISE's sequentially, on both axes. Cross out all cells for each ISE paired against itself or duplicate pair Option A ISE 1 ISE 2 ISE 3 ISE 4 ISE 5 ISE 1 x ISE 2 x x ISE 3 x x x ISE 4 x x x x ISE 5 x x x x x Option B ISE 1 ISE 2 ISE 3 ISE 4 ISE 5 ISE 4 x ISE 3 ISE 2 x x x x x Step 4: Brainstorm and record associations for each paired ISE For each cell not crossed out identify 2 or 3 associations between the paired combinations of any 2 ISE's. If an entire row or column is blank it usually means that the ISE is not an applicable ISE for the problem. Continue the process until all the cells not crossed out have been addressed by the team. Taking the examples from above "feels like home" and "designed for the target market" could lead to "Ann Summers Parties", "the british pub" Step 5: Bring it back to the original problem. Using each association and its underlying principles link this back to the problem. 257 Define the underlying principles of each association Step 6: Bring together the best ideas Bring together the best ideas from the original brainstorm (Step 1) and the TILMAG associations and principles (Steps 4&5) 258 TRIZ From Mycoted TRIZ is a Russian acronym for "Teoriya Resheniya Izobreatatelskikh Zadatch" (Теория решения изобретательских задач), and is the creation of a Russian called Genrich Altshuller. It is an attempt to improve on a random approach to innovation and invention by structuring the creativity in paths which have been shown to yield results. Often it can be shown that the solution to a problem was obvious, if the techniques of other domains was known - in many cases the same basic approach is used time and time again. It is also possible to classify problems and solutions into groups, and to simply examine a predefined list of possible solutions to that particular type of problem. The TRIZ approach encompasses a number of different tools and techniques for specific domains, including 40 inventive principles and contradiction tables; 1. Segmentation 2. Extraction 3. Local Quality 4. Asymmetry 5. Combination 6. Universality 7. Nesting 8. Counterweight 9. Prior Counteraction 10. Prior Action 11. Cushion in Advance 12. Equipotentiality 13. Inversion 14. Spheroidality 15. Dynamicity 16. Partial, overdone or excessive action 17. Moving to a new dimension 18. Mechanical vibration 19. Periodic action 20. Continuity of useful action 21. Rushing through 22. Convert harm into benefit 23. Feedback 24. Mediator 25. Self-service 26. Copying 259 27. Inexpensive short life 28. Replacement of a mechanical system 29. Use pneumatic or hydraulic systems 30. Flexible film or thin membranes 31. Use of porous materials 32. Changing the colour 33. Homogeneity 34. Rejecting and regenerating parts 35. Transforming physical or chemical states 36. Phase transition 37. Thermal expansion 38. Use strong oxidisers 39. Inert environment 40. Composite materials Some of these have been touched on here, but a full understanding of TRIZ requires much more study and information than can be presented. If you are interested, it is possible to find several books on TRIZ, and a number of sites on the Internet specialise on developments in the TRIZ field. see also ARIZ External links Altshuller's Official Site Altshuller Institute for TRIZ studies Interactive TRIZ Matrix Sixsigmafirst International TRIZ Association ETRIA - European TRIZ Association TRIZ Journal Anti TRIZ-journal Altshuller Institute for TRIZ studies Breakthrough Management Group TRIZ Consulting, Inc. TRIZ Experts Michael Orloff's TRIZ page Glenn Mazur's TRIZ page TRIZ Center Austria TRIZ Austria TRIZ Switzerland TRIZ.it! German free learning platform TrizLand! New site about TRIZ in Russian TRIZ at the Institution of Mechanical Engineers (IMechE) Technical Innovation Center 260 ProdyoVidhi, an Indian firm providing Technology Forecasting services using TRIZ Apeiron-Italian Triz Association GEN3 Partners Inc. Pretium Consulting Services, LLC Commercial TRIZ software Two philosophically different software packages exist today to reduce the time needed to solve innovative problems successfully. One has been developed by Valery Tsourikov of The Invention Machine in Boston, Massachusetts, and the other by Zlotin and Zusman for Ideation International in Southfield, Michigan. Source Goldfire Innovator from the Invention Machine TRIZ Contrasolve TRIZSoft from Ideation International Inc. Creax TriSolver4.net TRIZ.it! Innovation Principles Systematic Value Advancement (SVA) Software from Pretium Consulting Services, LLC 261 Talking Pictures From Mycoted Talking Pictures is from the book Instant Creativity by Brian Clegg and Paul Birch. When you need a little extra boost for a group that have got a little stale during the Idea Generation phase, split up into teams, giving each a digital camera and access to a printer (you could use a polaroid, or provide a set of bizarre photgraphs you have, but it's best to get the teams to capture them). Get the teams to spend about 5 minutes outside of the immediate area, taking pictures of either unusual objects, or objects from unusual angles. The more bizarre the better. Bring the groups back together and distribute their pictures to the other groups. Each group should now use the pictures provided to create associations that occur to them and then use these associations for idea generation. At the end of the session you can either collect all of the ideas together by writing them onto flipcharts or you can ask the groups to have listed their own and have these displayed for general perusal. This techniques uses Random Stimuli as an Excursion with the advantage of a challenge / competition thrown in. The humour generated from the unusual objects / angles also raises the energy levels of the group, along with the fact that they have been up and moving about. 262 Technology Monitoring From Mycoted Technology monitoring requires methodical monitoring of technological progress in areas that pertain to you. The concept (Bright, 1970) involves keeping a ‘monitoring log’ to record: Date Event and Technical Economic Date Possible Significance Things to Consider The ‘eureka moment’ is often subject to the convergence of advances in several technologies over several years, hence the need for continuous monitoring. The quality of any results are only as good as the time and effort disposed. 263 Think Tank From Mycoted ‘Think-Tanks’ are essentially a body of experts and academics collaborating to a common goal. A variety of alternative ideas, guidelines and supplementary information is suggested by the think-tank to aid accomplishing a possible solution to a problem. Thril - Three Fold Repetition of Initial Letter Thril is one of a number of techniques by Prof. Francisco Gomes de Matos from Recife, Brazil in his work on Peace Linquistics. The alliterations below have been selected from a list presented in a lecture given in English to students of International Relations at a College in Recife, Brazil - Faculdade Integrada do Recife. The first word in each alliteration was left blank during the lecture, so as to challenge participants. A A A - Aim at affinity and alliance B B B - Build a bridge between nations C C C - Consider conflicts constructively D D D - Dignify your diplomatic discourse E E E - Encourage empathy enthusiastically F F F - Favor flexibility and friendship G G G - Generate goodness and generosity H H H - Honor humanity and humaneness I I I - Inspire for integration and interdependence J J J - Judge with justice and justification K K K - Keep a Peace kit for keeps L L L - Let liberty be the light M M M - Maximize mediation and meditation N N N - Nurture national negotiating styles O O O - Observe opponents with openness P P P - Perceive persons as peacepartners Q Q Q - Question quixotic queries R R R - Recommend realistic reconciliation S S S - Support and sustain human solidarity T T T - Treat others with tact and tolerance U U U - Upgrade universal feelings of unity V V V- Veto all varieties of violence W W W - Weigh your words wisely X X X - X-in diversity and X-out xenophobia 264 Y Y Y - Yearn for peace in all yards Z Z Z - Zero in on peace zealously as the zenith The technique capitalizes on the principle of M M M , Memorable Meaning-Makin, that is, in creating a Thril, the human mind is challenged to generate a meaningful, memorable message. A variant of it : THRILing definitions, crafted according to the same strategy: e.g. threefold repetition of initial letter. Some examples of M M M definitions : What is Mnemonics ? Marvel for memory management What is Peace ? Marvel for meditation and mediation What is Language ? Marvel for meaning-making Meaningfulness and memorability are maximized through the Thril technique and variants thereof. Prof. Francisco Gomes de Matos would like to know if anybody has been experimenting with such mental meaning-making marvels. 265 Transactional Planning From Mycoted Transactional Planning is a structural means of solving a clients’ (‘sponsors’) problem through a consultant (‘planner’). A sequence of stages between ‘sponsor’ and ‘planner’ is followed: Formulation sponsor formulates requirements and planner interprets the problems Conceptualisation sponsor suggests ideas and the planner endeavours to construct a model Detailing planner employs model and formulates initial plan. Sponsor analyses the plan. Evaluation planner and sponsor discuss costs and benefits, reaching agreement on both perspectives 266 Trigger Method From Mycoted The trigger method is analysis based on repetition. One idea triggers another and another and so on until as many thoughts as possible are generated. Problem is defined, debated and ideas noted A selection of these ideas are collected then 5 – 10 are randomly chosen The 5 – 10 are displayed and used as ‘triggers’ to generate more ideas. Debating and discussing boosts teambuilding 267 Trigger Sessions From Mycoted Trigger Sessions are a good way of getting lots of ideas down from untrained resources. The Problem owner defines the problem Each member of group writes down his ideas in shorthand (2 minutes only) One member reads out his list - others silently cross out ideas read out and write down “Hitch-hiked ”ideas The second member reads out his list of ideas not already covered, followed in turn by other members The last member reads out his original list and his “Hitch-hiked” list and procedure is repeated counter current (ie, if there are 6 folk, the order goes 1,2,3,4,5,6,5,4,3,2,1,2,3,4,5,6...) A good group will be able to manage seven passes. Everyones paper is then collected and can be typed up into a single list of ideas - all duplicates should have been crossed out during the session. 268 Tug of War From Mycoted Tug-of-War is a Force-Field Analysis technique by Michael Michalko and is defined in detail in his book Thinkertoys. The process is; 1. 2. 3. 4. State the problem Describe the best case scenario Describe the worst case scenario List the consitions for each scenario o for each case, what are some of the things that help / hinder that outcome 5. Not the "Tug-of-War" o try and look at the opposing forces that can help / hinder, and see which can be modified. 269 Using Crazy Ideas From Mycoted When ideas cease to flow, the use of ‘crazy’ ideas can inspire far sighted, original possibly ingenious concepts, possible methods: Free Association Bunches of Bananas 270 Using Experts From Mycoted More advantageous in the final stages of a project, when concise information on costs, likely market, technical feasibility and rival technical developments is required. Using experts employs two alternative methods (below). Expert to expert sessions involve collaboration of experts with questions meeting experts with answers. Meetings are video recorded. Expert Surveys, (related to Delphi) involves questions in the format of a survey distributed to approximately 20 precisely selected experts. 271 Value Brainstorming From Mycoted Perceives single or group values observing their effect, if any, on what is actually done. Public values brainstorm short-list ‘what are my/our primary concerns’ Hidden values brainstorm short-list ‘what hidden values lie behind this primary concern’ or ‘what does this matter’ Rank and Clarify Rank short-list hidden values and define what each means Consider Implications now contemplate what can be done to action the ranked results A form of Brainstorming 272 Value Engineering From Mycoted Value Engineering endeavours to maximize the usefulness of a product via the most cost effective means: Identify its Basic Function e.g. a glass to hold a fluid, if it cannot hold a fluid is it unusable Identify its Secondary Function e.g. strength or colour of glass are not essential to hold the fluid, i.e. the fluid could be in a bag Identify its Supporting Functions i.e. colour, design on glass, non essential, but make the product look more desirable Cost-Effectiveness calculate how much it costs to implement each function. Ideas to Improve each Function Systematically go through each function and try to generate more effective and cheaper ways to achieve them. This ‘bit by bit’ methodology helps to break down the ‘bigger picture’ (overall problem) enabling a better understanding. The technique can be used in situations where an expensive commodity exists but is thought to possibly be of little value. 273 Visual Brainstorming From Mycoted When traditional thinking has become stale or dried up, visual brainstorming using graphic ideation may be a useful alternative Idea Generation Phase, set a high target: e.g. to generate 20-30 basic idea-sketches on a specific problem in 1hr. If in groups you could begin with private sketches which you then pool, perhaps a round robin. Quick, impulsive ideas put into sketch can help to avoid undeveloped ‘lost’ thoughts/ideas. Rapid response to an idea with an immediate sketch creates momentum, preventing any critical thought processes to intervene. Evaluation Phase, With a collection of sketched ideas, they can now be evaluated. 1. Present your idea-sketches, trying to observe them with as much imagination as possible 2. Think of yourself as a critic, so looking at them from another perspective 3. Rotate the sketches, place images on images, cover top of bottom half, these varying tactics may inspire yet another idea 4. Comparison. Clustering all the sketches together, place complex ones with simplistic ones, make comparisons, more ideas could be generated at this stage. 5. Log all the ideas that come to mind throughout the session, using different coloured pens to denote initial ideas, continuing ideas and then final more paramount ideas. 274 Visualising a Goal From Mycoted Once you have acknowledged a goal, others energetically and enthusiastically endorse commitment to the goal. Set your goal by settling on the aim, target, reason etc. This can be related to job, relationships, home, happier state of mind etc. Generate a concise idea or picture, of the situation exactly as you would like it, thinking of it in the present tense as already in existence. Incorporate as much detail as your imagination allows. Concentrate on it regularly, making it part of your daily routine and a natural thought rather than one that uses up unreasonable levels of effort. Make it a positive, and encouraging thought. Think strong positive definitions of achieving the goal. Dispelling any doubts. Pursue the goal, until it is achieved or you no longer wish to continue its pursuit, or indeed the goal alters in your mind. Once goal has been attained, make clear admission, pat yourself on the back and move onto the next goal. 275 Who Are You From Mycoted This method explores problems at a ‘deeper’ almost subconscious level. Problems that frequently give a vague sense of disquiet, a sense of things not going in quite the direction you had planned however, you have no clear thoughts of what the ‘right’ direction might be. The techniques below help to explore these deeper levels angled more towards the personal perspective (‘what do you or your team want to do or be?’) rather than the external perspective (‘what business area might offer the most prospects for success?’) Exploring the question directly Working Solo, Write ‘who am I?’ (or ‘who are we?’ if it is for a team) at the top of a sheet of paper, followed by as many answers as you can generate. After the first few quick, straightforward answers, stay with it and try to pursue more deeply thought out answers. Continue making notes on your thought and try to push the boundaries of your normal thinking. Working with a Partner, the above method actually works better with a partner. Sitting opposite each other for an agreed amount of time (say 5 – 10 minutes), several rounds of question and answers sessions take place. In the first round person A asks the question while person B comes up with the answers. In round 2 the roles are reversed, you can continue for as many rounds as you feel beneficial. The questioner asks the set question (‘Who are you?’, ‘What is the team?’), if necessary it may be repeated, if prompting is required. The questioner should not comment, nod, smile, frown etc.; but just listen attentively, not evaluating. Life Review This exercise follows an idea suggested by St Ignatius Loyola (some 500 years ago). He suggests using your imagination to look back at decisions from your deathbed as a basis for trying to make a current decision. Begin by relaxing in a calm, quiet environment then: Imagine your infancy, in your imagination think back to when you were a small, helpless, dependant, infant born into a particular environment Imagine being 5, imagine you are now 5, how did it feel to be 5? Can you picture images and memories from that time Imagine being 12, 25, 40, 65, after a few minutes, project your imagination to what you were like when you were 12, did you worry? What was important to you? What was your world like? Using the same method of thinking ask yourself the same questions for age 25 and 40 and 65. 276 Imagine being very, very old; imagine looking in the mirror when you are very old. What do you see? How you feel about yourself? Who are you? Take a retrospective look over your whole life – what really mattered? What would you have like to have done differently? Are you ready to die? Imagine your death, what are your thoughts as you imagine yourself dying? Imagine your closest friends and relatives, what would they be thinking about you? Imagine being reborn, after a few, or when you feel ready, imagine you are going to be reborn. You can be reborn, anywhere at anytime as anything you desire. What would your choices be? Return, When you feel ready to open your eyes, gradually look around you as if seeing everything for the first time. 277 Why Why Why From Mycoted Why? etc. - repeatable questions Repeating questions over and over generates as much or as little information as the quantity and type of questions demand. Differentiation between the 2 types of repeatable question gives serial questions, used indefinitely and emptying questions used until the subject concerned is drained. Serial Where the question and answers are related, you ask why C happened and the answer is related to another event B and so the same question can be reiterated, i.e. o WHY did C happen, because B did o WHY did B happen, because A did o WHY did A happen, because (etc…..) Causation, o 'WHY?’ Encompasses: o ‘What is the reason for?’ o ‘What is the cause of?’ o ‘What is the consequence of?’ o (See also Causal Mapping) Membership o ‘What are the parts of?’ o ‘What is this a part of?’ o ‘What belongs to it?’ o Parts could include sub-categories, or they could belong to a wider system (see Hierarchy diagrams) Sequence, o ‘What happened before and after C?’ exploration of the timing behind the events Frame, o 'What is the context of C?’ o ‘What is the context of that context?’ o This idea suggests a multi-layered hierarchy of one event dependant on another Emptying Questions Unlike the Serial questions above, these are not infinitely repeatable. A group of questions are considered until they exhausted, i.e. 278 o o o Who else went to X? Sue And who else? Phil And who else? No-one (category exhausted) The most frequently asked questions containing ‘else’ (‘Why else?’..’What else?’..’Where else?’ etc.) . 279 Wishing From Mycoted The Wishing concept literally means imagining a target with thoughts along the lines… ‘I wish I could’… Such thought processes can be used in day to day situation, i.e. ‘I wish I could convince my manager my deadlines are unrealistic !’ could be rethought as: ‘I wish I could re prioritise my work to reduce the pressure on myself’ Active wishing may start with a unusual/frivolous wish which is worth exploring to uncover its deeper routed message. Try to visualise something you aspire Question why/what will it do for you, letting the vision alter if need be Repeat this as often a you feel necessary until the true wish you desire is fully revealed Drive this clearer vision into the distance (‘zoom out’) Begin walking towards it You may now feel more able and better aware on how to get to that distant desire 280 Working with Dreams and Images From Mycoted This technique was originally developed by Glouberman (1989) and takes for granted that you have memorized a significant dream you have had and now wish to enhance it to allow it the opportunity to be of some function (see also Keeping a Dream Diary). Possible suggestions of you how you may go about this are: Locate the dream and get the feel of any atmosphere. Are you able to put a name to it? Is it familiar? Go into the dream, and experience the atmosphere. Identify feelings, relationships, and the situation. Is there anything familiar about them? Discover the dream taking a ‘birds eye view’ of it, flying high looking down on it, note what you see: o Do you notice anything significant? o Is there anything obvious you can do to improve the quality of the dream? o What would you like to whisper to the dream self? o Look at the dream from different angles, i.e. the left, the right, behind, in front, underneath, noticing what comes to mind about the dream and the dream self. o Envisage that the dream stage situated centrally in a room and physically walk around it. Developing the images can be achieved by discovering the most striking feature of the dream – person, scene, building, object, event… move into it, either in your mind, or by picturing it on a chair opposite and switching seats. Talk about yourself and your viewpoint, including your view of the dream itself. Transform into each important feature in turn – what does each feel and see? Have conversations between the dream self and any of these features, or between the various features. Every piece of the dream, whether it is a person, a table or a movement, has a communication that you as dreamer need to hear. Talk to the dream as a whole: ‘Dream, what do you want to tell me?’ Become the dream and answer. Combine the viewpoints by returning to the dream as the main dream character. Look intently around at all the characters, features, perspectives, etc. and think about what each have told you. Think about what you have learned from progressing the dream and what you now understand about how you live in the dream world and how you might live? Invite your unconscious to take in and put together these various understandings and perspectives. Take the time to let them sink in. Try to put the lessons in words as clearly as you can. Adaptating and progressing the dream more successfully by visualizing what new approach, attitude or personal quality you need in order to live this dream so as to feel really enhanced at the end of it. Try reliving it with this new approach or personal quality. Should you find it too difficult to imagine acting differently, just say to yourself: 281 o o If I did have that quality If I were like that, what would I do? If you get stuck anywhere, leave the dream and reconsider whether you need anything else in order to go forward. Try to find a way to live the dream so that it feels good. Continue this reworked dream into the future. What happens next, and after that? Validate out the new approach you have just tried from the various perspectives you explored before. What do the other characters, features, etc. think? What does this new dream look like from the ‘birds eye view’, below and the various sides? If there are any further shifts that seem appropriate, try them out. Understanding, re-examining, looking forward and surfacing occurs when you feel good about the dream, thank your unconscious for giving you the dream, and thank your conscious self for working so hard. Request your unconscious to put together your new understandings, and to present you a new dream in the near future that will characterize your new state. Prior to and following emerging, think about the relevance of your understandings to your life. Where in your life are you relating to the world as you did in the dream? How could you operate differently? Write down your experience, paint the dream or express it in some other medium. Retrieved from "http://www.mycoted.com/Working_with_Dreams_and_Images"
