Chapter 2:
Characteristics of Effective Teaching of Reading
Overview
Teachers’ philosophies about how students learn to read and become proficient readers
greatly affect their instructional techniques within their classrooms. These beliefs are influenced
not only by their educational background and professional development, but also by the students
within their classes. Indeed, classroom experiences shape these teaching styles; still, all reading
teachers must provide opportunities for success through creating environments conducive to
learning for their student bodies. Designing positive learning environments is fundamental to
meeting the needs of every child.
A Definition
Contributing to children’s reading success is the key goal of reading instruction.
Naturally, questions arise as to how to fulfill this sometimes difficult task. The central
component in effective reading programs is the classroom teacher, his/her expertise, and the
continued support provided to students (Braunger & Lewis, 2006; National Research Council,
2001; Reutzel & Cooter, 2008; Snow, Griffin, & Burns, 2005). If students were all on level and
had the same interests, motivations, and enthusiasm for reading, teaching reading might be a
simpler task. However, the real world has learners with varying levels of development and
differing previous experiences which contribute to shaping their views towards reading. Thus,
effective teachers must go beyond teaching the reading curriculum by individualizing their
instruction towards students’ specific needs.
Moreover, they use multitudes of methods towards a holistic development between all
language processes including reading, writing, listening, and oral communication. These teacher
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professionals encourage a love of reading through modeling their own adoration towards
reading, and by nurturing opportunities for students to read materials of their choice. When
combined with current research of effective reading strategies, teachers can successfully develop
lifelong learners who use reading to learn new concepts in the content areas as well as topics of
interest.
Research on Effective Reading Instruction
A prerequisite to having meaningful reading instruction is creating an environment that
promotes literacy. It is the responsibility of the classroom teacher to set forth a framework by
which students can become a community of learners. So how does this happen? Tompkins
(2006) says that fostering support for student-to-student learning has numerous benefits,
including instilling student motivation to learn. Also, students who feel comfortable asking
questions and discussing topics in class will almost certainly ascertain better understandings of
concepts and content as their peers and teacher assist them in the learning process.
Reading instruction should also provide students with learning opportunities beyond the
confines of reading class and into all content areas. Within any reading program, Richek,
Caldwell, Jennings, and Lerner (2002) emphasize that “strategy instruction and practice should
occur within the context of real reading experiences” (p. 113). In too many instances throughout
elementary schools, students are taught skills in isolated ways with which they cannot easily
transfer what is learned. When students see the purpose or understand how a skill can be applied
in their everyday lives, they value these school experiences. As teachers model these desired
skills and strategies, they also begin to develop a relationship with the students. Children love to
demonstrate their newly learned abilities, and the more a teacher shows interest, the stronger a
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connection is formed between that teacher and those students. Quintessentially, building rapport
with students is one of the most important components of instruction (Richek et al, 2002).
Along with purposeful instruction to which students feel connected, teachers should also
closely monitor student progress. According to Gunning (2006), “Teaching and assessment
should merge” (p. 16). Maintaining ongoing informal and formal assessments of students is
critical towards sustaining an appropriate instructional plan. Instead of assessing just for
assessment’s sake (which happens all too frequently), assessments should always be constructive
tools with which critical data is obtained that can directly affect planning and teaching. When
appropriate assessments are issued, instructional support can “be geared just beyond what
children are able to accomplish independently” (Barr, Blanchowicz, Bates, Katz, & Kaufman,
2007, p. 31). Using this Vygotskian perspective of scaffolding readers through their development
allows students to progress to higher levels of reading proficiency with close facilitation,
instruction, and leadership from the classroom teacher.
Recognizing Effective versus Non-Effective Teachers
Although it is commonly understood that reading is an important part of educational
attainment, some children, adolescents, and adults have been turned off to reading for a host of
reasons. This is an all too often occurrence within elementary schools where students cannot
relate to subject matter, do not see the benefits of reading, and lack the motivation to read in
general. When people recollect about one of their childhood reading teachers, some identify a
reading teacher who was either significant towards their childhood language development while
others envision one who was counter-productive in making reading class seem boring,
monotonous, or even incomprehensible. The following excerpts are examples of classroom
environments created by effective and ineffective reading teachers.
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Scenario 1:
Mrs. S has students begin each day journaling about various topics related to her reading
instruction. Afterwards, two students per day orally present their manuscripts to their fellow
classmates, who ask one question and give two praise points. Students are encouraged to follow
along as the teacher begins a read aloud from the weekly basal reader. Mrs. S stops periodically
asking the students questions while trying to build their anticipation for the climax of the story;
in addition, students are given the opportunity to ask questions to clarify story events. Once the
reading is concluded, the teacher carefully instructs and models specific tasks they will be
responsible for completing. Students break into groups where they have various tasks; once
there, the teacher allows students to assist one another in the learning of skills and content while
facilitating their needs throughout the classroom. This classroom environment is well-suited for
students to learn through multiple avenues of communication and collaboration.
Scenario 2:
When reading class begins, Mr. J tells his students to write in their journals. As many begin that
process, they develop questions. Yet, the teacher refuses to assist because this is his time to
prepare for the upcoming whole-class lesson. He quickly studies the daily curriculum, stopping
his students after an unspecified time for journaling. “Everybody be quiet and listen,” he
exclaims. “Today, we are reading a story about birds. Since you all know what birds are, I will
begin the reading.” As the uninterrupted read aloud commences, some students are not paying
attention. Mr. J finishes the reading and then assigns students their tasks to complete individually
at their desks. It is clearly visible that some students are not thrilled about another day of doing
worksheets about the weekly story in their basal reader. “We have to do it, because reading is
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important,” states Mr. J from his desk. Some students complete the activities, but most are bored
and think reading class is pointless.
Most educators know other teachers who fit into both of these categories. Still, it must be
stressed that effective reading teachers can change reading perceptions by adapting their
instruction so as to make reading a meaningful and relevant experience rather than a dull activity.
Factors that Impact Instruction
How teachers shape their instruction will inevitably be influenced by multiple factors,
including cultural backgrounds, previous experiences, prior knowledge, language development,
and vocabulary acquisition. These aspects play a role in how students learn and develop as
readers and thus, must be foci within effective reading instruction.
Cultural Backgrounds
Within the United States, classrooms are becoming increasingly diverse in terms of
background and abilities. This amplifies the need to consciously take individual needs into
consideration on a continuing basis. Valuing each student as an individual who has something to
contribute to class is a major step in creating learning communities, a necessary component in
today’s diverse classrooms. Sapon-Shevin (2001) suggests that teachers “model respect for
diversity and help students understand that people are different and learn differently” (p. 36).
These practices are critical in classrooms where students work with and learn from one another
daily.
Being culturally competent educators means providing opportunities for all learners to
succeed. Using an array of methodological approaches to reading instruction gives every student
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a chance to learn. For example, modeling how reading strategies work rather than simply
dictating directions is one simple method by which classroom teachers can prevent
misconceptions within their student body. Moreover, effective teachers of reading are culturally
sensitive and responsive by accounting for children’s unique interests and attitudes within
structuring learning opportunities. When these factors are addressed, teaching reading is like
building a bridge between a student’s current skill level and an elevated level of enrichment,
where both existing abilities and supplementary ones can develop.
First and Second Language Development
There is tremendous individual variation between students who learn English as a second
language (ESL). In all, there are a total of four different dimensions of language acquisition:
linguistic, sociocultural, cognitive, and academic processes. This complex interwoven
relationship is a reality with which reading educators must face head on for success to be
attainable.
For some time, research findings have correlated the integrated relationships between
first language cognitive development and the second language development (Collier, 1992;
Cummins, 1991; Moll, Velez-Ibanez, Greenberg, & Rivera, 1990; Thomas & Collier, 1997).
Implications reach beyond the confines of school and into students’ homes because many
students have parents who primarily speak another language. Instead of trying to change this
(which would be highly counter-productive), it should be embraced to enhance cognitive
development. Ovando, Combs, and Collier (2006) advocate that “solving problems together,
building or fixing something, cooking meals, talking about a television program, or going
somewhere together are cooperative family activities that can stimulate the continuation of
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children’s cognitive processes” (p. 145). Furthermore, their research indicates that “when a
student’s cognitive and academic growth in L1 is more fully developed, the student’s proficiency
and academic development in L2 will deepen.”
Today, English language learners (ELL) are receiving integrated approaches to their
educational development, where language and content areas are taught simultaneously. In these
models of learning, multiple language modes (listening, oral communication, reading, and
writing) are incorporated into instruction. These curricular facets are relatively new; as just a
decade ago ESL instruction was not inclusive, but instead taught solely as a separate subject. It is
the authors’ feelings that recent educational renovations have provided a foundation by which
educators can more successfully meet the needs of their diverse student populations.
Experiences
Students’ experiences are critical to think about before, during, and after instruction.
Previous exposure to particular topics and subjects can be highly varied among students in a
class and thus, these must be detailed as soon as possible. Informal experiential surveys can be
issued at the first of the year or even before the commencement of upcoming units to determine
whether the concepts presented will be completely unknown, slightly understood, or already
fully comprehended. Inevitably, students will differ in their previous experiences, but identifying
those areas is critical for framing one’s instruction.
Effective reading teachers gather this information and utilize it when selecting texts and
other materials to supplement their children’s experiential backgrounds throughout the year. The
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following case study depicts a lesson in which Mrs. Jones, a second grade teacher, gathered
information about her students’ experiences with airplanes.
“Class, we will be doing a unit on transportation this month. I would like you to raise
your hand if you have been on an airplane before? Wow! Five of you have . . . where did you go,
Tommy? What about you Jessica?”
This scenario represents a valid assessment of students’ prior experiences. Mrs. Jones
asked her student body consisting of 26 students who had previously been on an airplane. Since
only five of the students had flown on airplanes, she realized that she should provide more
background information about this particular mode of transportation in the beginning of the unit.
Prior Knowledge
Prior knowledge of both concrete and abstract concepts has significant impacts on overall
comprehension of text. What students bring to their readings includes knowledge of concrete
(e.g., bicycle) and abstract (e.g., happiness) concepts. For instance, students raised on a farm in a
rural community will likely have developed knowledge vastly different from those who grew up
elsewhere. This knowledge will promote understanding when reading or discussing ideas related
to prior knowledge in that area. Consider the following case study and prior-knowledge
dilemma:
The classroom teacher of inner-city fourth grade students from a disadvantaged neighborhood
introduced a lesson on various recreational and leisure-time activities. The teacher mentioned a
variety of activities which she typically pursued on the weekends (mountain climbing,
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backpacking, sailing, racquetball, golf) and then asked the students what they knew about these
activities. Very few of the students participated in the discussion.
What was the reason behind her students disinterest towards participating in the
conversation? Of course, it was their limited experiences and firsthand knowledge of these
activities. These ideas were “foreign” to them since they never had the opportunity to participate
in these recreational activities. Thus, it is imperative for classroom teachers to relate new topics
of instruction with students’ existing knowledge. For instance, if the fourth-grade teacher had
described activities with which students from an inner-city setting would be more familiar like
rollerblading, basketball, and jump roping. The teacher’s examples may have been appropriate
for rural or suburban populations, but not necessarily for her urban class. She must gear future
lessons and discussions to the background, experiences, and prior knowledge of the students, if it
is to be a successful learning experience. Effective reading teachers are aware of their students’
unique qualities and design their lessons or implement activities to develop the necessary
concepts based on this information.
Vocabulary
The extent to which children have conceptual knowledge and related vocabulary also has
a direct impact on their abilities to reading with success. Vocabulary knowledge greatly enhances
reading comprehension by allowing focus to shift from word deciphering to conceptual
understanding. The complexities of the vocabulary-comprehension relationship are prevalent
(Beck, McKeown, & Kucan, 2002); yet, looking into teaching methods directed at vocabulary
acquisition is salient towards determining its classroom implications.
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Long-term approaches to vocabulary instruction seem to be more appropriate than
infrequent bouts of teaching vocabulary words, especially when aligned with the National
Reading Panel’s determination that “seeing vocabulary in the rich contexts provided by authentic
texts rather than in isolation was one of the characteristics of instruction that produced robust
vocabulary learning” (Kamil & Hiebert, 2005, p. 9). The teaching of individual words is
pertinent in elementary classrooms; however, teachers must bestow both definitional and
contextual information so that students may connect those terms with their existing knowledge.
Since only a small number of words that students need to know can be taught individually, wide
reading can also provide students with opportunities to significantly increase their vocabulary
knowledge.
On the other hand, emerging and beginning readers need exposure to rich language—an
essential ingredient in effective vocabulary instruction (Biemiller, 1999). Oral and written
language activities like story telling, read alouds, singing songs, and classroom discussions
promote vocabulary acquisition. In these exercises, teachers model correct word usage and
contextualize what the related words mean, allowing students to understand more fully those
unfamiliar words.
Sustained vocabulary instruction is critical, since vocabulary growth is often understood
as a slow accumulation process. Knowledge of words that can transfer to the learning of new
words or generative word knowledge is another key component in an effective reading teacher’s
strategic kit. Word-learning strategies, like using word parts or context, are simple but valuable
tools that can be taught to students. Word learners also possess the ability to differentiate
between relevant and irrelevant textual information in trying to determine the meaning of words
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(Nagy & Genter, 1990; Nagy & Scott, 1990). Although teachers have a variety of techniques to
teach vocabulary, students’ concepts and related vocabulary knowledge must be ascertained if
vocabulary instruction is to be instrumental towards developing background in areas which
students have an incomplete or inadequate understanding.
Developing a Plan for Effective Instruction
Assess the Needs of the Students
To be an effective reading teacher, specific information regarding students (e.g., prior
knowledge, experiences, interests, and motivations) must be determined. Classroom teachers
typically utilize both informal and formal instruments to detail the following:
1. What do my students already know about the content or concepts?
2. Do they have any misconceptions about the content or concepts and if so, what
are these misconceptions?
3. Do my students have adequate background knowledge (e.g., vocabulary, reading,
writing, and study)?
4. If not, with which strategies do my students need direct instruction to be successful?
5. How interested are my students in this particular topic? If it is of low interest, what can
be done to relate this content/concept to something that is of higher interest and that
which my students can relate?
These questions and others may be used as a tool to begin units, lessons, or discussions.
Assessments conducted before instruction are essential in determining a foundation level for
students. Only then can progress be revealed during and/or after instruction with assessments.
Thus, it is imperative for teachers of reading to make these determinations periodically so that
comprehension can be facilitated in a most effective manner. For example, an informal approach
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such as having students write, diagram, or draw what they know about a particular topic or
concept is an excellent initial assessment procedure. Students actively engage in sharing their
individual accounts of existing knowledge by completing the activity. All students participate in
detailing their depth of knowledge, possible misconceptions, knowledge of related vocabulary,
and interest that they have and thus, information is gathered that provides crucial information
regarding how a teacher should shape instruction on the topic under consideration. Teachers may
want to use students’ diagrams and develop those in a whole class setting as an introductory
activity. Those initial assessments are crucial to successful instruction because they gather
valuable information to use as a basis for making decisions regarding instructional goals and
organization as well as adapting the learning environment to the needs of the students. As one
develops into an effective reading instructor, one will be continually using assessment data to
guide instruction.
Determine goals and objectives
Deciding what to teach and how to present the information are two concerns with which
assessments will directly impact classroom teachers. Figure 2.1 and 2.2 present examples of a
detailed survey that was developed specifically to assess students’ previous experiences with
social events, activities, types of transportation, and places with which they have been. Utilizing
surveys such as The Ortlieb Experiential Survey allow teachers to see whether most of their
students have experienced these concepts firsthand, which makes a substantial difference when
reading stories and teaching related content. For example, if a teacher determines that most of the
students have rode on a subway, he/she will spend less time explaining related vocabulary and
background information; instead, the focus of instruction can be directed towards comprehension
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Figure 2.1
Figure 2.2
The Ortlieb Experiential Survey
The Ortlieb Experiential Survey
Name:_______________________
Grade Level: ______
Check whether or not you have been to the following places.
Date: ___________
Places
Directions: Answer the following questions that relate to your previous experiences.
Yes
No
Yes
No
Bank
Movie theater
Restaurant
In which of these social events and activities have you participated?
Event
Yes
No
Activity
Yes
Convenience store
No
Museum
Hiking
Birthday party
Barbeque
Picnic
Shopping mall
Dancing
Beach
Hunting
Mountains
Camping
Parade
Desert
Fishing
Sports
Grocery store
Swimming
Bookstore
Farm
In which ways have you traveled?
Type of
Transportation
Library
Zoo
Yes
No
Hotel
Train
Ski slope
Boat
Swimming pool
Car
Ice cream parlor
Bicycle
Playground
Subway
Woods
Bus
Market
Skateboard
College
Taxi
Neighborhood
Amusement park
Airplane
Rodeo
of particular events or the entire story. More time can be shifted from basic instruction of topical
information to developing a deeper understanding of the concept (subway) than previously held
by the students. In contrast, when most students have not experienced and know little about a
particular topic (e.g., ski slope), ample time should be directed towards giving students basic
background information. Only then can they progress to comprehending stories read in class.
The needs of each particular student body will inevitably differ, as they come with
varying levels of knowledge and skill. In addition, the geographical area from which students are
located could have an impact on what they know and have experienced (e.g., students in rural
areas may not have been to a college).These intricacies are difficult, if not impossible, to
determine without first issuing experiential surveys. What is a better source to ascertain
information about student needs than from the students? Indeed, developing one’s goals and
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objectives should always be framed with the students in mind; doing otherwise would not
support them towards becoming successful readers.
Select Materials Appropriate to the Needs of the Students
Although assessments provide teachers with pertinent information regarding their
students, they do not supplement one’s instruction unless they are considered when selecting
material suitable for instruction. These primary and supplemental materials should be matched to
the students’ instructional needs, cognitive experiences, cultural and linguistic backgrounds, and
interests/motivations. A wide variety of materials should be available to students both in and
outside the classroom to promote learning indefinitely. Such materials could be teacher-made,
student-made, or even from the library; regardless of the origin, providing students with
opportunities to choose from a wide variety of appropriate and interesting materials is critical to
increasing students’ interest and motivation to read, write, and learn.
The following suggestions have been recommended by Wray (1994), Mercer and Mercer
(1993), Miletta (1992), McGill-Franzen (1993), and other professionals to assist teachers provide
appropriate instructional and personal reading materials (including both fiction and non-fiction):
1. Secure materials that have field-test or research data to support their effectiveness.
2. Evaluate materials presented before purchasing them.
3. Obtain materials that reflect your literacy objectives and the interests and needs of
your students (e.g., topics and complexity).
4. Provide materials that facilitate students’ critical thinking and literacy abilities (e.g.,
series books with predictable characters, settings, and plots).
5. Provide materials that promote the integration of receptive and expressive language
processes (e.g, related-writing activities for authorship).
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6. Acquire materials that can be used in teacher-directed and student-led literacy
activities (e.g., easy and difficult books).
7. Provide materials in different print formats (e.g., big books).
8. Secure materials that can be used to develop thematic units (e.g., selected holidays).
One of the primary considerations when evaluating materials is readability. The
readability level of the content can cause readers great difficulty if it is too high. Content area
texts are often in excess of two grade levels above the current grade level of students with whom
the text is used. Thus, it is necessary to have an awareness of the readability level of texts used in
one’s classes, and determining the appropriate grade level at which various materials are written
can be accomplished in several ways. Sometimes, the publisher provides the readability level for
their books; however, it may only represent a quantitative average for an entire set of materials,
and at best is only partial information. In some instances, such information is not provided at all.
Thus, it is best to use a readability formula to ascertain this quantitative information, as well as
later examine the material qualitatively. Several limitations should be considered if you use a
quantitative-assessment technique in determining readability levels:
1. They provide only an estimate of the level of a given selection.
2. Concepts in the text under analysis cannot be measured.
3. Formulas are calculated in different ways and thus, will often provide different
levels for the same material.
4. The degree of difficulty of vocabulary causes fluctuations in readability levels.
5. The syntax and semantic style of certain materials may affect readability levels.
6. The students’ reading performance is affected by their experiential, linguistic,
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cognitive, and language/cultural backgrounds, as well as their interests, purposes,
motivations, and prior knowledge relating to the materials to be read.
Indeed, there are some problems associated with using readability formulas; still, they can be
useful in many instances. These formulas provide a quantitative estimate of the grade level at
which a text is appropriate for use; yet, they should be used in conjunction with qualitative
analyses to determine their applicability within the classroom. Although there are many
readability formulas available, one that is flexible and relatively easy to use and understand is the
Fry Readability Graph. Its popularity sparked the original graph, which determined grade levels
from 1-12 to be extended to in both directions from preprimer to college level by Maginnis
(1969) (see Appendix A).
Since it is known that readability formulas do have drawbacks, using them in conjunction
with qualitative assessments of reading materials provides the necessary means to judge the
suitability of reading materials. Effective reading teachers must make a concerted effort to obtain
this information because there is no way that publishers can determine their materials’
appropriateness for your students. Thus, it is your job to complete this task and in doing so,
consider these qualitative notions and questions in evaluating a material’s instructional
appropriateness:
1. How difficult are the concepts discussed or mentioned in the material?
2. How much prior experience would students need to understand the concepts?
3. What are the presupposed notions for understanding the concepts presented?
4. Is the material presented in natural and uncomplicated syntax?
5. Would students have the linguistic experience to deal with the syntax, semantic, and
graphophonic cues inherent in this material?
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6. In what type of discourse or expository structure is this material written?
7. Are students familiar with this structure? How difficult would this structure be for
them?
8. Is the material organized in an easy-to-use and easy-to-read format?
9. Are easy-to-use reading aids available in this material (index, table of contents,
glossary, chapter introductions, chapter summaries, outlines, illustrations, and so on)?
Can students use these aids effectively?
10. Does the material look appealing, is it of interest to students, and is it presented in a
way that stimulates their interest and would motivate reading?
These considerations shape the entire instructional process and thus, it is important to
arrange materials in your room in a way that best facilitates instruction. Changing the materials
periodically also increases the likelihood of continuing to stimulate interest. Classroom materials
can be on display in an assortment of ways like on easels, the tops of low shelves, book racks, in
a library area, reading areas, or learning centers. Likewise, student work can also be illustrated
and bound for display purposes in a similar fashion. Promoting your own students’ literary works
on bulletin boards creates an atmosphere that embodies the value of literacy.
Guidelines for Effective Reading Instruction
The following guidelines are presented to further express the complexity and
interconnectedness of many aspects of effective reading instruction:
1. Reading is a language-based process. Although various theories and models of reading have
been proposed, it is unmistakable that understanding the relationship between spoken language,
thoughts, and print is central to developing as a reader. Language and print awareness are
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especially important for emerging readers, as they are just beginning to learn the relationships
between sounds and letters/words. Exposing students to diverse language-rich opportunities to
learn through utilizing a variety of texts (e.g., picture books, chapter books, big books,
magazines, and newspaper articles) and genres (e.g., fiction, science fiction, non-fiction, poetry,
adventure, suspense, mystery, and fantasy) can be influential in their formative years. As
students engage in varied language experiences, their vocabulary and language skills will also
become broadened and enhanced. Often, children come to school with fairly large listening and
speaking vocabularies while their word identification in print is significantly lower. Allowing for
classroom experiences that foster language development aims to offset students’ word
recognition abilities, which is imperative towards their future reading success.
2. Reading is a complex and multidimensional process. Since many variables can affect
students’ reading performance, it must be understood that mastery of some skills does not
necessarily correlate to high comprehension levels. For example, if a student has great decoding
skills, he/she may and may not comprehend what is being read and vice versa. Effective reading
teachers take the following components into consideration: sensory, perceptual, sequential,
experiential, linguistic, cognitive, learning, association, affective, constructive, and cultural
elements. A teacher must not only have an awareness of these factors, but also shape one’s
instruction by his/her students’ unique understandings of these literary components.
3. Reading instruction should meet the needs of each student. Indeed, it is an extraordinary
task that is placed upon classroom teachers, as more and more they have students in the same
grade level who range sometimes more than three grade levels in reading level. For example,
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Mrs. Cruz is a third grade teacher of 24 elementary school students. After assessing her students
at the beginning of the school year, it was determined that she had three students who were nonreaders, nine students who were one grade level below, eight students who read on grade level,
and four students who were above grade level. All of the students are in the same classroom; yet,
it is Mrs. Cruz’s responsibility to provide for their individualized needs.
Effective reading teachers identify the needs and interests of their individual students,
especially at the beginning of the school year. Just as assessments are conducted to determine
their current reading levels and their strengths and weaknesses in reading skills, students’
interests and attitudes towards reading should be determined. Providing appropriate instruction
without doing so is not feasible. Once these interests and needs are noted, instruction can ensue
based on a sound philosophy of reading. Differentiating approaches to instruction is
recommended to address every student’s needs, which includes individualized assignments and
activities as well as allotted time for students to pursue personal reading. While there are many
approaches to reading instruction, no one method is appropriate for all; some approaches to
reading will be effective for one student but ineffective for another. It must be remembered that
in order to determine which type of instruction to use, one’s student population and its inimitable
needs must be considered.
4. Continuous assessment is essential to providing effective instruction as it serves to inform
instruction. Students’ growth and development can also be measured through continuous
assessments so as to notify parents, students, teachers, and school administrators. Documentation
of results can be sometimes tedious; nevertheless, it is a critical component when planning
strategies and techniques to remediate students’ abilities or lack thereof. Gathering and analyzing
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data is critical to excellent reading instruction. According to Reutzel and Cooter (2008),
classroom teachers must have assessment knowledge and abilities of the following:
1. Determining what children can do, not just what they cannot do.
2. Understanding the multiple purposes for which assessment strategies may be used (i.e.,
screening, diagnosis, progress monitoring, and outcome assessments)
3. Using assessment data to inform the selection of reading instructional strategies
4. Gaining insight into the process students use when reading and writing, not just the
final products of their reading and writing
5. Documenting children’s reading growth and development over time in relation to
established benchmarks or standards
6. Examining the entire context (the school, the home, and the classroom) of a child’s
opportunities to learn to read
7. Developing a year-long assessment plan for multiple assessment strategies
8. Integrating reading assessment data gathering into ongoing reading instruction and
practice
9. Using computers and electronic technology to collect, store, organize, and analyze
assessment data
Although it would not be practical to formally assess students daily, informal assessments
(e.g., observation, evaluation of students’ work, listening to students read aloud, students’ selfassessments, and/or student-teacher interaction) can be utilized in the context of actual classroom
work, ensuring students are regularly assessed and their needs are identified promptly. These
student assessments provide the foundation for designing, implementing, and monitoring an
effective instructional program in your classroom. If assessments are to truly be informative,
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they must also allow for student participation through their own reflections and self-evaluations.
Using multitudes of ongoing assessment techniques is imperative to staying abreast of students’
current needs and in turn, teachers can facilitate an instructional program aimed at each student’s
development.
5. Integrating reading into content area learning is important for reading instruction. When
designing an effective classroom program, the ties reading has to all content areas must not be
forgotten. The integration of reading into other subject areas must be done because reading is not
an end in itself; rather, it is a tool that gives students access to vast amounts of information about
such content areas as mathematics, science, social studies, and literature. Students can not only
benefit from reading content-related materials, but also through reading for research, personal
enrichment, and recreation. Conceptual learning in every content area relies on reading for
acquiring information. Realizing this is imperative towards developing classroom instruction that
embraces contextualization and allows students to see the connections between reading and
learning and thus, make interdisciplinary gains. For example, Jamie, a fifth grade student reads a
book about mummies to assist her towards designing a poster for an upcoming presentation. In
conducting the reading, she builds her vocabulary of related terms (e.g., embalm, preservative,
canvas, and sarcophagus) while learning scientific factual information. In addition, she studies
the social culture and civilizations with which performed these rituals in preparation for an oral
presentation, where she will use her communication and theatrical skills. In these contexts,
readers develop across the curriculum simultaneously.
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6. Personal reading is a crucial element of the classroom program. Learning to read serves
several purposes like researching and learning about areas of personal interest and need as well
as for personal enjoyment. However, in many elementary schools, outside pressures and
concerns have led to classroom instruction consisting of the repetitious teaching of skills and
practice without regard to their applicability and usefulness to students. These methods are
utilized so that instruction can be measureable. Indeed, some skill instruction is necessary within
elementary schools; yet, the overuse of teaching skills followed by practicing those skills via
worksheets does not correlate with learning. It must be remembered that the eventual goal of
reading instruction is the production of successful, independent readers, not machine-like drones.
Students must be taught to apply reading skills and strategies to real-life situations, needs, and
materials. Through developing as readers, students should be able to pick up, successfully read
informational and recreational materials (e.g., newspapers, magazines, or library books) and
comprehend the information. Routman (2002) reminds us that allotting time every day for
students to read books and other materials for personal purposes or enjoyment instills a desire to
read.
7. Reading should be a positive experience for students. Reading is enjoyable because it opens
up new horizons; yet, some students never develop this desire because they do not have success.
Experiencing some success with the printed page is critical for students to develop a positive
attitude about reading. Encouraging students to read is one effective method with which teachers
can continuously implement in their classrooms. Skill instruction should be used to develop
students’ abilities to read and ascertain information for many purposes including research and
personal reading. Effective instruction relies upon instilling the understanding that reading
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enhances all other learning, and practicing this ideology (e.g., the teacher reads during personal
reading time) allows students to embrace the philosophy. Classroom teachers, who demonstrate
how reading can be a fun, powerful tool to learn, have students with similar beliefs. Providing
students with positive experiences and feelings of success allows for more successful reading
experiences in and outside the classroom.
8. Learning to read is a continuous and developmental process. It is sometimes thought that
once students learn to read, reading instruction is over. However, this narrow view does not take
into consideration that reading is a complex process in which students learn strategies and skills
as they develop in early childhood and elementary school. These school-wide experiences build
upon students’ language and cognitive acquisition at home from birth. Layers of ability, strategy
implementation, and precision continue to be refined throughout students’ lives from elementary
school to high school and throughout life.
9. The ultimate goal of reading is comprehension. Sometimes, teachers and students become
overburdened with the practice of sounding out letters and words in isolation that they forget
about the broader purpose of reading—comprehension. Students should be encouraged before,
during, and after reading, to reflect and contemplate the text and its contents (e.g., predicting,
inferring, connecting, comparing, and contrasting). As students are regularly encouraged to
reflect, they form habits of thinking about what they are reading and as a result, comprehension
abilities increase as they develop into more proficient readers. Placing the emphasis on meaning
is central to effective reading instruction.
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10. Effective teachers implement effective instruction. Although there are many teachers who
have the potential to become effective reading teachers, it is not until they create an environment
that is student-centered and geared towards their needs that learning and reading development
can thrive. In these environments, student growth and development becomes maximized so
students can learn to their potential. Instruction geared towards particular reading needs,
strategies, motivations, interests, and culture is central to implementing an effective reading
program, where students benefit from the learning opportunities provided. Effective teachers
know an array of instructional methods and approaches to reading instruction, carefully molding
models of reading towards individual student populations and their needs. Through designing
and implementing a reading program suitable for one’s students, significant gains can be made
when compared to using the same reading program in every classroom without other
considerations. The emphasis is on gaining meaning from print with support from the various
skill areas, resulting in the students’ ability to apply their knowledge of reading to the content
areas as well as to their own personal reading pursuits. Effective instruction promotes a sense of
motivation within students so that they can become successful independent readers.
11. Multicultural education and ESL considerations. Students’ unique and similar
background experiences, cultures, and lifestyles should be carefully considered when
formulating appropriate instructional programs. Although it is commonly thought that
differences separate individuals from each other, the opposite—that differences can bring people
together—is just as relevant. For example, when teaching a literature unit on the Scandinavian
cultural heritage, in addition to their unique characteristics, similarities between them and one’s
student body should also be identified and discussed. It is the teacher’s role to acknowledge both
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similarities and differences between cultures to provide a more rich experience, promoting not
only awareness but also appreciation of others.
Those who speak English as their second language (ESL) and those English language
learners (ELL) need individualized instructional planning beyond what teachers typically provide
for students. An emphasis on reading strategies appropriate to their individual needs and
circumstances, interests, motivations, and cultures is required. Collins and Cheek (2000) make
the following recommendations for teachers of non-English speakers or English language
learners:
1. Become familiar with the student’s culture.
2. Teach the student some basic, survival words from the English language (e.g., name,
address, restroom).
3. Provide systematic instruction of critical concepts (e.g., numbers, letters, time,
colors).
4. Teach sentence formation by speaking clearly, directly, and in simple sentences.
5. Utilize community resources (e.g., bilingual volunteers, community members).
6. Partner the child with another student so that he/she becomes accustomed with the
school.
7. Place the student in a variety of groups (not just the low reading group) so as to give
diverse language experiences.
This process can be quite complex because the English language has sounds that do not exist in
other languages; therefore, teachers must remain patient as these English learners become
acquainted with sound-letter correspondences. For example, Spanish-speaking students may
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experience difficulty learning the j sound, as in jaw, because this sound does not exist in their
native language.
12. Technological tools for reading instruction are excellent supplements to existing
curriculums. Some curriculums today are closely integrated with assortments of software
programs from almost every publishing company that can be directed towards developing every
area of reading from phonemic awareness, phonics, and fluency to vocabulary, word recognition,
and comprehension. Richek, Caldwell, Jennings, and Lerner (2002) affirm that there are four
distinct advantages of using computers in reading instruction:
1. Computer instruction offers the poor reader more time for learning on a one-on-one
basis.
2. Computers can help develop automaticity (or fluency) in word recognition.
3. The computer offers the student private instruction.
4. The computer offers the opportunity and time to think about the reading passage. (pp.
109-110)
When used properly, supplemental technological tools can augment reading programs and have
tremendous success. For example, teachers can structure a learning center where students are
directed through various computer-based activities related to the weekly basal story. Students
circulate amongst the learning centers, having a chance to access the computer learning center
several times a week. Technology is often such an appealing medium by which students desire to
use to learn, play, and read. Thus, it is critical for teachers to take advantage of this motivation
towards technology and utilize it towards increasing reading skills, abilities, and comprehension
levels.
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Providing Effective Reading Instruction: A Framework for Instruction
Direct Reading Activity (DRA)
Constructed by Betts (1946), the Direct Reading Activity (DRA) is an effective strategy
for reading instruction consisting of instructional support before, during, and after reading. Its
popularity has sparked the construction of multiple modified versions of the DRA specifically
geared towards students with special needs, including Lindsey’s (1975) modified DRA. The
Directed Reading Activity consists of sequential steps in which reading teachers assist students
throughout the reading process in order to ensure students learn new vocabulary, background
knowledge, and word recognition, as well as develop an understanding of the story. Walker
(2004) summarizes the procedure of using the Directed Reading Activity:
1. The teacher develops readiness for reading:
a. The teacher presents new vocabulary words in oral and written context.
Students are asked what these new words mean and directed to remember the
words by their distinctive visual features.
b. The teacher develops appropriate background knowledge so that students will
understand the general setting of the story.
c. The teacher gives the students a purpose for reading by telling them to read to
find out a particular thing or concept. She develops purposes that require
students to read the entire story before an answer is resolved.
2. The students read the story silently.
a. If necessary, the teacher divides the story into sections. After the students read
a section, the teacher asks a variety of questions emphasizing literal and
nonliteral story understanding.
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b. The teacher asks the students to support their answers by reading the
appropriate sections in the text.
3. The teacher reinforces and extends concepts introduced in the story.
a. Activities to reinforce word recognition and word meaning are used to
develop independence in reading.
b. Activities that develop a creative response to the story are assigned.
c. Activities that require students to relate the story to their own experiences and
to other stories are used. (p. 227)
The DRA is a teacher-directed activity, unlike many other reading strategies. Thus, its
effectiveness will be highest when a significant amount of teacher-led instruction is needed (i.e.,
the teacher scaffolds the learner through the reading activity) in the reading process. This
approach for instructing children to read is flexible as it can be used for both expository and
narrative texts in portions or in their entirety. The aim is for students to read with increased
comprehension, having already been familiarized with new vocabulary words. Techniques such
as the DRA are especially important for students who struggle with word recognition. In
addition, setting a purpose for the reading is also an intricate step for ensuring students’
attention, focus, and comprehension during the reading. The purposes you give your students
should correspond to the types of information that you want them to comprehend. For example,
“Read the first page of the story and find . . .” directly addresses the goals or purposes for
students to consider during their reading.
Guided Reading
As one of the most valuable tools in a reading teacher’s toolbox, guided reading provides
much needed small group facilitation and instruction. The three goals of guided reading are: 1)
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Expose children to a wide variety of literature; 2) Teach comprehension strategies; and 3)
Increase students’ comprehension abilities through using increasingly more difficult texts. Its
framework consists of multiple steps in which a teacher directs students throughout the reading
process:
1. Choose a book
a. Teacher chooses a book selection for the group to read, based on reading
levels and ability to use reading skills and strategies
2. Introduce the book
a. Activate prior knowledge
b. Introduce characters
c. Make predictions (look at pictures)
d. Set purpose for reading
3. Read the book
a. Students may read silently as teacher monitors them
b. Teacher may take anecdotal notes on individual students
(document what reading skills and strategies each student exhibits and/or
vocabulary with which they may need help)
c. If a student requires assistance, the teacher may assist one-on-one with word
identification and support their efforts to comprehend the selection.
4. Talk about the book
a. Encourage students to briefly share their responses
b. Prove/verify their predictions
c. Check to see if they read for the purpose
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d. Students may ask any questions to clarify misconceptions
e. Relate reading to personal experiences
5. Teach mini-lessons
a. Introduce, practice, or review one or two skills or strategies after reading.
These lessons may come from notes taken during observations while students
are reading.
b. Teacher may ask students to return to the text to focus on word-identification,
comprehension, or story elements.
Rubrics can also be created to assess students during the guided reading process. The
following two rubrics were created by mastery reading specialists (Guedry & Day, 2001). Figure
2.3 depicts an appropriate rubric for grade levels K-2, while Figure 2.4 is specifically tailored to
grades 3-5.
Figure 2.3
Guided Reading Rubric (K-2)
_____ Familiar Re-Reading
_____ Running Record OR
_____ Observation of Guided Reading
_____ Teach / Praise Point (strategies)
_____ Cluster / ABC Chart
_____ (Optional) Link to Teach & Praise Points
_____ New Book
_____
_____
_____
_____
Introduce (Title, Cover, Brief Overview)
Predictions / New Vocabulary
Picture Walk
Set Purpose
_____ Silent Reading
_____ Teacher Observation
_____ Teach / Praise (strategies)
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_____ Comprehension
_____ Discussion / Revisiting the Text
_____ Follow-up (optional)
_____ Focus on Skills
_____ Written Response / Interactive Writing / Retelling
_____ Extension Activities (story mapping, etc.)
Comments:____________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Figure 2.4
Guided Reading Rubric (3-5)
_____ Text Selection
_____ Matches the Needs of Student
_____ Introduce the Text
_____ Motivates Readers
_____ Sets Purpose for Reading
_____
Read the Text
_____ Silent / Oral Reading
_____ Teacher Observation / Note-taking
_____ Discussion / Revisiting the Text
_____ Questioning
_____ Prompts (Oral or Written)
_____ Teaching Processing Strategies
_____ Mini-lesson (Addresses skill)
______________________
Comments:____________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
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Basal Readers
Consisting of collections of stories arranged by grade level and organized around a
specific scope and hierarchy of skills, basal readers are the predominant material within most
reading programs. Many basals are also accompanied by additional texts (e.g., trade books,
chapter books) that are aligned with the same topics and related skills/strategies presented for
each story as well as coincide with the readability rates. These grade-level-appropriate stories are
arranged in order of increasing reading difficulty. This is valuable for classroom teachers
because finding numerous weekly texts on a specific level of readability can be a cumbersome
task with all of the other duties a teacher must complete. This is not to say that reading teachers
should not check the labeled level of readability for particular texts, but not having to search
week in and week out for these materials is a life saver. With the focus more and more on
systematic, explicit instruction since the passing of the No Child Left Behind Act in 2001,
elementary schools are increasing their use of basal readers with teacher’s editions that carefully
guide their instruction. Historically, basal readers have not always contained stories of the
highest quality or appeal; however, there has been a race to produce basals and other curricular
materials based on quantitative research findings by virtually every publishing company. In turn,
there has been an influx of high-interest stories, with some excerpts taken directly from classic
literature (Walker, 2004).
Authentic Literature
Both fictional and non-fictional texts, like those that can be found in the library, represent
authentic literature. Trade books can be used within elementary schools so that students can
experience the natural language of an author, rather than language heavily influenced by
readability rates and controlled vocabulary. Instead, these texts present diverse perspectives on
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all sorts of topics ranging from cultural representations to adventuresome travels. Because
authentic literature is written in every genre and style, it provides the perfect medium for which
teachers can allow students to access books of their choice to read during and outside of class.
These reading experiences motivate students to enjoy reading and thus, should be utilized
regularly by classroom teachers. Think about it from a fifth grader’s perspective: “All I ever read
in class is stories that are not that interesting . . . why can’t I be allowed to read some library
books about cars?” When students are not given ample opportunities to read authentic literature
of their interest, they quickly lose interest in reading in general. This can have a snowball effect,
resulting in lower all-around academic achievement and a life-long dislike of reading. However,
infusing authentic literature within a curriculum counteracts that problem by providing exciting
stories as well as informational accounts in language that evokes attention, emotion, and
reaction.
Comprehensive Literacy
Comprehensive approaches to literacy instruction are multidimensional; thus, these
composites of instructional strategies, models, skills, and materials come in a variety of shapes
and sizes. However, several common aspects should be included in every comprehensive literacy
program:
1. Lessons are derived from students’ ongoing assessments - The testing, data
collection, analysis, and instructional plans should be a recurring process which
directly affects instructional goals and objectives.
2. Individualized instruction - Meeting the needs of every learner is critical to creating
an optimal learning environment. Informal assessments can provide classroom
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teachers with meaningful and pertinent information to guide instruction of each
student.
3. Group learning – Allotting time for students to teach and learn from one another can
dramatically increase the opportunities for reading development and skill acquisition.
4. Scaffolding – Through activities like the DRA or guided reading, teachers can adapt
and carefully direct student’s reading abilities through close facilitation.
5. Curricular Coordination – When curriculums and lessons are designed around
one’s reading philosophy, instruction tends to be seamless and much more effective.
6. Interesting Texts – Through using authentic trade books or even books of students’
choice retrieved from the school library, classroom collection, the bookstore, or even
home, teachers provide meaningful reading experiences.
Direct Instruction and/or Explicit Instruction
Effective reading teachers have a clear understanding of what their students need to
know. Therefore, part of the students’ development should be carefully guided by the expertise
of the instructor. Heilman, Blair, and Rupley (2002) state that “teachers can use direct/explicit
instruction to impart “new information to students through meaningful teacher-student
interactions and teacher guidance of students’ learning” (p. 37). Using direct instruction is
especially effective when it provides active communication and interaction between the student
and the teacher. Ranging from highly-structured to less-structured in nature, direct instruction
can be geared towards teaching skills and strategies with each requiring particular methods. For
example, when a reading teacher is showing students how to decode words, the procedure is
more rigid. Explicit modeling can be extremely effective for teaching students skills that are
necessary to develop and in turn, increase students’ reading comprehension. On the other hand,
34
when teaching about making inferences, the structure of the lesson is less defined and more
flexible because it requires higher-level cognitive processing skills.
Summary
Having a knowledge-base of how students learn to read is the foundation from which to
teach; however, much more is required to assist students in becoming better readers. It also
involves much more than just teaching from the textbook. If we want to develop students’
reading abilities and skills, we must: 1) determine their interests and motivations to know who
they are as individuals, 2) establish differentiated instruction for students of varying needs, and
3) build upon what the students already know. Taking into account these considerations is
critical towards effective reading instruction. It is also imperative for the classroom to be
conducive towards literacy learning including having a print rich environment (word walls,
calendars, alphabet chart), multiple levels of trade books, and reading areas available to your
students. When combined with ongoing assessment practices, teachers can stay abreast of
students’ reading strengths, weaknesses, and interests in order to scaffold their learning and
cultivate their reading development.
35
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