Spirituality, Academic Achievement and Girl-Child Age at Marriage
Prosper Tinkamanyire
A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the degree of Master
of Arts in Counselling of Makerere University
i
Declaration
I, Prosper Tinkamanyire, declare that this dissertation is as a result of my own
independent research effort and investigation. It has never been submitted to this or any
other university or institution of higher learning for any other award. Where other
individuals’ information has been used, quotations have been made and references
provided.
Signed ------------------------------Prosper Tinkamanyire
Date: ……………………………..
ii
Approval
This dissertation has been approved and submitted for the award of the degree of
Master of Arts in Counselling of Makerere University with my authority as a university
supervisor.
Signed………………………………………
Dr. Vicki Owens
Date……………………………….
iii
Dedication
To my beloved wife Nyangoma Beatrice and my children, Judith, Timothy, Daniel
and Regina and to my mother, Angella.
iv
Acknowledgements
I am particularly grateful to my supervisor, Dr. Vicki Owens, for her professional
guidance, advice, encouragement and positive academic criticism, and all my lecturers for
their academic contribution.
I am grateful to all my family members particularly, my wife who has been
instrumental to my educational progress and children who were patient with me during
my studies.
Lastly, I would like to express my gratitude to colleagues in discussion groups
whose contribution immensely stimulated my reading and understanding. May God bless
you all.
v
Table of Contents
Page
Declaration ........................................................................................................................... i
Approval ............................................................................................................................. ii
Dedication .......................................................................................................................... iii
Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................ iv
Table of Contents .................................................................................................................v
List of Tables ................................................................................................................... viii
List of Figures .................................................................................................................... ix
Abstract ................................................................................................................................x
Chapter 1: Introduction ........................................................................................................1
Background .............................................................................................................. 1
Problem .................................................................................................................... 3
Purpose .................................................................................................................... 4
Objectives ................................................................................................................. 4
Scope ........................................................................................................................ 4
Significance .............................................................................................................. 5
Conceptual Framework ........................................................................................... 5
Chapter 2: Literature Review ...............................................................................................7
Introduction.............................................................................................................. 7
Spirituality and Academic Achievement .................................................................. 7
Spirituality and Girl-Child Age at Marriage ........................................................... 8
Academic Achievement and Girl-Child Age at Marriage ...................................... 11
Hypotheses ............................................................................................................. 13
vi
Chapter 3: Methodology ....................................................................................................14
Introduction............................................................................................................ 14
Research Design .................................................................................................... 14
Study Population .................................................................................................... 14
Sampling Strategy .................................................................................................. 14
Instruments ............................................................................................................. 15
Procedure ............................................................................................................... 16
Data Management .................................................................................................. 17
Analysis .................................................................................................................. 17
Limitations ............................................................................................................. 18
Chapter 4: Findings ............................................................................................................19
Introduction............................................................................................................ 19
Personal Information ............................................................................................. 19
Descriptive Findings on Spirituality, Academic Achievement and Age at
Marriage ................................................................................................................ 20
Statistical Findings about Relationships Between Variables ................................ 22
Relationship between spirituality and academic achievement. ................. 22
Relationship between spirituality and girl-child age at marriage. ............ 23
Relationship between academic achievement and girl-child age at
marriage. .................................................................................................... 24
Chapter 5: Discussion, Conclusions and Recommendations .............................................26
Introduction............................................................................................................ 26
Discussion .............................................................................................................. 26
Relationship between spirituality and girl-child age at marriage. ............ 26
Relationship between spirituality and girl-child age at marriage. ............ 27
vii
Relationship between academic achievement and girl-child age at
marriage. .................................................................................................... 28
Conclusions ............................................................................................................ 29
Recommendations .................................................................................................. 30
Area for Further Study ........................................................................................... 30
References .............................................................................................................. 31
Appendix A: Questionnaire for students............................................................................36
Appendix B: Yamane’ (1967) sample size table ...............................................................39
viii
List of Tables
Page
Table 1: Students by Schooling Status............................................................................... 19
Table 2: Students by Age ................................................................................................... 20
Table 3: Students by Girl-Child Age at Marriage .............................................................. 20
Table 4: Correlation Between Spirituality and Academic Performance ............................ 23
Table 5: Correlation Between Spirituality and Girl-Child Age at Marriage ..................... 24
Table 6: Correlation Between Academic Achievement and Girl-Child Age at
Marriage ................................................................................................................. 24
ix
List of Figures
Page
Figure 1: Relationship between spirituality, academic achievement and girl-child age at
marriage ............................................................................................................................... 5
x
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to establish the relationships between spirituality, academic
achievement, and girl-child age at marriage. The study adopted a correlational research
design. A simple random sampling technique was used to select a sample of 145
adolescents. Spearman rank order correlation coefficient was used to test hypotheses.
There was a positive moderate relationship between spirituality and academic
performance. There was a positive moderate relationship between spirituality and age at
marriage. There was a positive weak relationship between academic achievement and age
at marriage. It is recommended that girl-children should be encouraged to be involved in
spiritual activities if their academic performance is to be increased and if their age at
marriage is to be delayed.
1
Chapter 1
Introduction
Background
Child marriage is defined by the World Health Organization (2000) as the period
between 15 and 19 years of age when girls contract a permanent sexual relationship. At a
global and national level, there has been growing concern about girl-child marriage age
(The Family Life Movement of Zambia, 1997; UNICEF, 2001a). This is because girls
who marry early are twice as likely to die from childbirth and are more vulnerable to
pregnancy-related complications, sexually transmitted diseases, and higher levels of
reproductive mortality and morbidity. Despite these, a number of girls get married earlier
than expected in Uganda (UNICEF, 2001a; World Health Day: Safe Motherhood, 1998),
which shows that the problem still looms at large with a mean age of early marriage at
15.5 years (UNICEF, 2001b).
Although uncommon in most developed countries, early marriage is still prevalent
in developing countries around the world. According to the International Center for
Research on Women (ICRW, 2003), the practice is highest overall in west Africa and in
south and central Asia. Although rates vary considerably from country to country, in
Bangladesh, Cameroon, Mali, Mozambique, Nicaragua and Uganda, more than half of
today’s 20–24-year-old women married before turning 18.
In Uganda, marriage is common among young girls (Kagwa, 2001). Many girls in
Uganda marry by age 15 (UBOS/Macro International Inc., 2007). According to
UBOS/Macro International Inc. (2007), Western Uganda’s age at first marriage has been
17.4, 18.2 and 17.3 for the years 2003, 2004 and 2005, respectively. In the effort to
increase the age at first marriage, Uganda has tried to intervene by setting the minimum
legal age for marriage at 18 years and through emphasis on educating the girl child
2
through a number of educational reforms instituted since 1990. However, in Western
Uganda, marriages among teenage women are still common (UBOS/Macro International
Inc., 2007)
Early marriage contributes to a series of negative consequences for both young
girls and the society in which they live. It is a violation of human rights in general and of
girl’s rights in particular. For both girls and boys, early marriage has profound physical,
intellectual, psychological and emotional impacts, cutting off educational and
employment opportunities and chances of personal growth. This study focused on girls, as
early marriage impacts upon girls in far larger numbers and with more intensity. Besides
having a negative impact on girls themselves, the practice of early marriage also has
negative consequences on their children, families, and society as a whole. UNICEF
(2000) argued that it is not only girls that pay for early marriage but also the society as a
whole. Population pressure, health care costs and lost opportunities of human
development are just a few of the growing burdens that society shoulders because of
teenage pregnancies.
Early marriage also undermines international efforts to fight against poverty in
developing countries. Bunch (2005) made it clear that the widespread practice of child
marriage makes it increasingly difficult for families to escape poverty in the developing
world. This is because girl-children, when married off at an early age, are denied an
opportunity to access education and be equipped with skills that would make them
productive. In addition, they can be exposed to HIV/AIDS at an early age and, if infected,
their health may not allow them to be productive. Thus, this undermines critical
international efforts to fight poverty, HIV/AIDS and other development challenges,
making billions of dollars in development assistance less effective.
3
The increase in number of early girl age at marriage may be due to low academic
achievement and low spirituality among girls but requires a study to be conducted for
empirical evidence. Evidence shows that academic achievement among Ugandan girls is
lower compared to boys (Kasente, 2003; MoES, 2001; Muhwezi, 2003; Wagwau, 2004).
The indicator of academic achievement is a student’s progression from one class to
another and can be measured in terms of student attrition (that is school dropout and class
repetition) and academic performance (Bean, 1981). According to Muhwezi (2003), the
dropout rate at secondary school for girls in 1995 was 7.6 percent while that of boys was
six percent. By 1997, the rate for girls had gone down to 6.9 percent while that for boys
was still at six percent. In the year 2000, the number of dropouts was 48,570, of whom
25,679 (52.9%) were girls and 22,891 (47.1%) were boys (MoES, 2001). Thus, school
attrition is higher for the girls than boys at the secondary level (Kasente, 2003).
At the same time, a concern has been raised about increasingly low spirituality
among girls (Irving, 2000; Kagwa, 2001). Spirituality is an individual’s attitude, feelings
and behavior related to spiritual activities (Beyerlein, 2001). Kagwa (2001) observed that
the number of young girls’ attitudes, feelings and behavior that are not related to spiritual
activities was increasing at an alarming rate, citing naked girls dancing for audiences at
night. In support of this, Rugyendo (2004) showed young school girls who were involved
in pornography.
It has been shown elsewhere that academic achievement and spirituality strongly
influence early marriage (Bean, 1981; Kraig, 1999; Lehver, 1999). However, these
studies have been conducted outside the context of Uganda.
Problem
Despite efforts to reduce early marriage by tackling poverty, traditional practices,
and legal issues, the problem still looms. There is a persistent increase in early marriages
4
in Uganda (UNICEF, 2001a). In addition, there is a low academic achievement among
Ugandan girls compared to boys (Kasente, 2003; MoES, 2001; Muhwezi, 2003) and there
have been concerns raised about the increasingly low spirituality among girls (Kagwa,
2001). Elsewhere, studies have shown that spirituality is related to academic achievement,
which is related to early marriage. These relationships need to be examined in the
Ugandan context so that early marriage may be comprehensively addressed.
Purpose
The purpose of this study was to establish relationships between spirituality,
academic achievement, and girl-child age at marriage.
Objectives
The objectives of the study are:
1. To examine the relationship between spirituality and academic achievement
2. To examine the relationship between spirituality and girl-child age at marriage
3. To examine the relationship between academic achievement and girl-child age at
marriage.
Scope
The geographical scope of this study covered the six parishes of Bumbaire subcounty in Bushenyi District in Western Uganda. Bumbaire sub-county has been chosen
because there has been concern among various stakeholders about the problem of early
marriage among girls (Bushenyi District Profile, 2004). The conceptual scope of this
study was limited to spirituality, academic achievement, and girl-child age at marriage.
Spirituality referred to an individual’s attitude, feelings and behavior related to spiritual
activities. Academic achievement referred to students’ performance in examinations,
while girl-child marriage referred to the situation in which a girl got into a permanent
5
sexual relationship and this relationship was either legal or traditionally recognized as
marriage.
Significance
The results of this study will provide knowledge to parents, educationists and
researchers about how spirituality, academic achievement and girl-child age at marriage
are related. Such knowledge is expected to help parents to provide guidance to the
children in spirituality and academic performance in order to fight against early marriage.
The knowledge will also be helpful to educationists and researchers in that they will use it
in their profession to enrich the literature on the relationship between spirituality,
academic achievement and girl-child age.
This will lead to development of counselling strategies by school and religious
counselors to those students in and out of school that could have performed poorly in
academics or were lured into marriage at an early age. Scholars and students will benefit
from findings in their future research. Educators and parents will be able to look at the
involvement of their children in spirituality in school that are likely to lead to the decline
of their academic performance.
Conceptual Framework
Spirituality
Academic achievement
Girl-child age at marriage
Figure 1: Relationship between spirituality, academic achievement and girl-child age at
marriage
The conceptual framework depicts the independent variable as spirituality, the
intermediate variable as academic achievement, and the dependent variable as early
marriage. It shows the relationship between spirituality and academic achievement,
spirituality and girl-child age at marriage, and academic achievement and girl-child age at
6
marriage. It shows that one’s spirituality may be related to her academic achievement
and/or may be related to the age at which she marries.
The conceptual framework shows that spirituality may be both directly and
indirectly related to the age at which such girl marries. For example, higher spirituality
may be indirectly related to increase girl-child age at marriage through higher levels of
academic achievement. On the other hand, lower spirituality may be indirectly related to
lower girl-child age at marriage through low levels of academic achievement. However,
the conceptual framework also shows that spirituality may be directly related to girl-child
age at marriage, with higher spirituality increasing girl-child age at marriage and vice
versa.
7
Chapter 2
Literature Review
Introduction
This chapter consists of three sections. The first section presents literature on
spirituality and academic achievement. The second section presents literature on
spirituality and girl-child age at marriage. The third section presents literature on
academic achievement and girl-child age at marriage.
Spirituality and Academic Achievement
Religious communities are known to instill standards of achievement in their
young people, but this may not apply as well to disadvantaged youth and their culture
(Beyerlein, 2001). The spiritual poverty of much contemporary education provides few
opportunities for today’s youth to quench their thirst for meaning and wholeness.
Misguided or unconscious attempts by students to attain some sense of fulfillment often
results into varying degrees of addictive behavior or relationships which make teaching
difficult if not impossible (Vernom, 2003).
According to Kraig (1999), some adolescents with high spirituality are much more
likely to have a good academic achievement than adolescents with low spirituality. That
is, adolescents’ spirituality is likely to contribute to their academic progress. In the same
light, Lehver (1999) observed that educational attainment is highest among adolescents
whose spirituality is higher.
In a study to examine spirituality and religious participation among AfricanAmerican and European college students, spirituality and religion were measured as two
distinct constructs and the study’s particular interest was the relationship between these
two variables and academic performance (Walker, 2002). Findings suggested that
African-Americans have higher levels of spirituality than European-Americans do.
8
Walker (2002) suggested that spirituality was positively related to achievement for both
groups; however, the pattern of the relationship was different. Keohane (2003) articulated
that students’ spiritual or religious growth during the college years is most affected in
positive ways by their degree of spirituality and their academic achievement, but that
many institutions do little to foster or encourage students’ interest. Azam (2004) showed
that under achievement of Bangladeshi and Pakistani children in England has been
blamed on the amount of time they spend in mosques studying the Koran. In this study,
there was a possibility that findings would establish the kind of relationships depicted in
this literature and the explanations given by these researchers to explain the relationship
was excepted to be helpful.
Spirituality and Girl-Child Age at Marriage
Child marriage usually refers to two separate social phenomena which are
practiced in some societies (International Center for Research on Women’s (ICRW)
Report, 2003). The first and more widespread practice is that of marrying a young child
(generally defined as below the age of fifteen) to an adult. In practice this is almost
always a young girl being married to a man. The second practice is a form of arranged
marriage in which the parents of two children from different families arrange a future
marriage. In this practice, the individuals who become betrothed often do not meet one
another until the wedding ceremony, which occurs when they are both of a marriageable
age. Which age this is differs by local custom. In most practicing cultures, this age is at or
after the onset of puberty.
Early child marriage is prevalent in many cultures throughout human history, but
has gradually diminished since some countries started to urbanize, changing the ways of
life for the people of these countries (Cohen, 2004). An increase in the advocation of
human rights, whether as women's rights or as children's rights, has caused the traditions
9
of child marriage to decrease greatly as it was considered unfair and dangerous for the
children. Today, child marriage is usually only practiced in third world countries, where
cultural practices and traditions remain and have a strong impact on the people, and
where the living standards and conditions still create a strong incentive for child marriage
(Singh & Samara 1996 cited by LeFevre et al., 2004). For example, it is still common in
rural parts of Pakistan.
According to Locoh (2000), child marriages may have many purposes: The
nobility of some cultures tend to use child marriage among different factions or states as a
method to secure political ties between them. For example, the son or daughter of the
royal family of a weaker power would sometimes be arranged to marry into the royal
family of a stronger neighboring power, thus preventing itself from being assimilated. In
the lower classes, if they were fortunate, families could use child marriages as means to
gain financial ties with wealthier people, ensuring their successions.
In Africa, despite many countries enacting a marriageable age of 16-18,
customary and early marriages are widespread (Bayisenge, 2010). Bayisenge (2010)
observed that this phenomenon is still widespread in many developing countries with a
high prevalence in Sub-Saharan Africa more particularly in Central and West Africa. In
many tribal systems a man pays a dowry to the girl's family in order to marry. This in
many parts of Africa decreases as a girl gets older. Even before puberty, it is common for
a married girl to leave her parents to be with her 'husband'. Many of the marriages
therefore are poverty related, with parents seeking a dowry to feed, clothe, educate and
house the rest of the family. A male child in these countries is still more likely to gain a
full education, gain employment/pursue a working life and therefore they tend to marry
later. In Mali the girl: boy ratio of marriage before age 18 is 72:1; in Kenya, 21:1.
10
The various UN commissioned reports indicate that in many Sub-Saharan
countries there is a high incidence of marriage among girls aged less than 15. Many
governments have tended to overlook the particular problems which child marriage has
resulted in.
Throughout the world, marriage is regarded as a moment of celebration and a
milestone in adult life. Sadly, the practice of early marriage gives no such cause for
celebration. All too often, the imposition of a marriage partner upon a child means that a
girl or boy’s childhood is cut short and their fundamental rights are compromised
(UNICEF, 2001; Lefevre, Quiroga and Murply 2004). Young girls are robbed of their
youth and required to take on roles for which they are not psychologically or physically
prepared. Many have no choice about the timing of marriage or their partner. Premature
marriage deprives them of the opportunity for personal development as well as their
rights to full reproductive health and wellbeing, education, and participation in civic life.
Hammond (1993) showed that there is a relationship between spirituality and girlchild age at marriage among white females, but not female African-Americans. Using
mainline Protestants as the comparison group, he found that young white fundamentalists
and their sect-like background are much more likely to marry by the age of 19, while
Catholics and non-Christians are significantly less likely to marry early.
Landis (2003) contended there is a problem in trying to combine the two most
powerful aspects of our lives, marriage age and spirituality. The Bible obviously does not
address the issue of marriage age and therefore the whole truth about marriage age has
become relative in Christian circles (Landis, 2003).
Recent research has revealed a tendency for some adolescents to discourage their
peers from getting involved in religious activities. However, it has been found that less
involvement in religious activities is considered a potential predictor of early child
11
marriage among girl-children (Landis, 2003; Grand, 2003). Recent work in the literature
suggests that spirituality may have important implications related to the age at which a
girl gets married (Hammond, 1993).
According to Hammond (1991), frequency of church attendance is significantly
inversely related to marriage age for both males and females, irrespective of their
denomination. This study aimed at establishing whether the girl-child’s spirituality
influences girl-child age at marriage. There was a possibility that the relationships
depicted in this literature would be similar to the findings of this study and the
explanations given by these researchers to explain the relationship was expected to be
helpful.
Academic Achievement and Girl-Child Age at Marriage
Demographers have devoted considerable effort in recent years to exploring the
association in developing countries between schooling and age of marriage (Fluty, 1997).
Fluty (1997) found that school, the institution outside the family that plays the most
important role in the socialization of the young, has the potential to influence directly
students’ marriage age. Academic achievement clearly plays a role in the timing of
reproductive events. Walker (2002) found that students’ academic achievement can affect
the likelihood of marriage while in school, particularly for girls.
According to Bayisenge (2010), the school is the most important institution
outside the family involved in socializing young people into all dimensions of adult roles
and responsibilities. More years of schooling have been associated with many positive
outcomes, including later ages of marriage. However, early marriage inevitably denies
children of school age their right to the education they need for their personal
development, their preparation for adulthood, and their effective contribution to the future
wellbeing of their family and society. Indeed, married girls who would like to continue
12
schooling may be both practically and legally excluded from doing so. The essence of the
rights to education and to health is that they facilitate and ensure the effective enjoyment
of other human rights.
Some parents believe that girls do not need an education for their roles as wives
and mothers and that education undermines cultural practices and teaches girls to reject
tradition as shown in the following:
At the age of about 14 years, my father sent me to my uncle so that he could let
his wife train me for marriage. He believed that if I continued to go to school, I
would be a spoilt girl and no man would agree to marry me. Being a spoilt girl
meant that I would be too wise to marry back in his village where he could get my
dowry (Womankind 1999 cited by the Forum on Marriage and the Rights of
Women and Girls, 2000, p. 18).
The positive effect of educational attainment and school enrollment in raising age
at marriage has been documented (Lloyd, 2006). With an increase in girls’ schooling in
sub-Saharan Africa, there has been a growing recognition of the importance of secondary
schooling and thus, a steady decline in girl-child marriage age (Lloyd, 2003).
Trusty and Watts (1999) examined prior school performance as a factor in
adulthood-related experiences such as age at marriage in South Africa. They found that
poorer school progress and performance, as measured by temporary school withdrawal
and grade repetition, are positively and significantly associated with the likelihood of
getting married at a young age.
A comparison of marriage timing for those who never attended school and for
those who attended school revealed that the transition to marriage occurs much earlier for
those who never attended school (Lloyd, 2006). Indeed, among those never attending
school, 50 percent married between the ages of 18 and 19. Among those who attended
school, there is a sizeable gap in years between school exit and first marriage. For
13
example, of those who attended school, 50 percent had exited school by age 16, but
roughly 50 percent had married at age 24.
A recent analysis of changes in the percentage of 20–24 and 40–44 year-old
women married by age 18 as a function of changes in grades of school attained in 49
DHS countries indicates that, although the decline in the percent marrying early is
associated with the rise in mean grades attained over the past twenty years, the
association (r = –.46) is weaker than many might have expected (Walker, 2002). These
aggregate results could be partially explained by the fact that, in many countries, a delay
in school exit does not necessarily lead to a delay in marriage if most still leave school at
an age when relatively few are yet married. In the future, however, this relationship could
begin to strengthen if further delays in school exit begin to encroach on traditional
patterns of marriage timing.
The main interest in the relationship between academic achievement and age at
marriage has been the negative association between years of schooling and age at
marriage among female adolescents (Walker, 2002). The experience of being in school,
however, occurs prior to adulthood, during childhood and adolescence, and involves
much more than years of exposure to school. It was therefore surprising that in Uganda,
little attention had been paid to the immediate implications of academic achievement on
the timing of entry into girl adulthood, a life cycle phase that is synonymous with
marriage or motherhood, whichever comes first.
Hypotheses
The hypotheses of the study were:
1. There is a relationship between spirituality and academic achievement.
2. There is a relationship between spirituality and girl-child age at marriage.
3. There is a relationship between academic achievement and girl-child age at marriage.
14
Chapter 3
Methodology
Introduction
This chapter consists of seven sections and these include research design, study
population, sampling strategy, instruments, procedure, data management and analysis.
Research Design
The study adopted a correlational research design. This was because the study
intended to establish whether relationships between the variables existed. A correlational
research design was deemed suitable to establish such a relationship.
Study Population
According to Bushenyi District Profile (2004), the study population was
approximately 500 married girls.
Sampling Strategy
Using Yamane’s (1967) Sample Size Table (see Appendix D), with a population
of 500 and a precision level (sample error) of 7 percent, a sample of 145 adolescents
were selected. Only married girl adolescents aged 15 to 19 years in Bumbaire sub-county
in Bushenyi District were selected. This age bracket was the child marriage age defined
by the World Health Organization (2000). The LCs provided a list of names of these girls
used in sampling. A simple random sampling technique was used to select them. This was
achieved by picking random numbers from a random number table, which were compared
to the numbers assigned to the girls. Those who had numbers corresponding to the
randomly selected numbers from the random number table were selected to participate in
the study. This technique was chosen because it saves time when selecting a sample from
a large population and yet it provided the respondents in the population an equal
opportunity to participate without researcher bias.
15
Instruments
To measure spirituality, academic achievement, and age at marriage,
questionnaires were used because they were easy to administer to large group of
respondents. Spirituality and academic achievement were measured with a five-point
Likert scale. Age was left as an open-ended question such that each girl wrote her exact
age in the space that was provided.
Regarding the Spirituality Scale (SS), there were 20 items (Walker, 2002).
Respondents answered the items using a five-point Likert scale ranging from “Strongly
agree” to “Strongly disagree” (see Appendix C). Some of the items (2, 3, 10, 12, 13, 16,
18 and 20) were negatively stated while the rest were positively stated.
Three modified items were combined to assess the students’ academic
achievement (Walters & Bowen, 1997). The first item asked students to report the kind of
grades that they made on their exams. The second item asked students to report the
number of D’s and F’s that they made on their exams. The last item asked students to
compare their grades to other students in their classes. Self-reported grades have been
supported in prior research as a valid measure of academic performance (Domhursh,
Ritter, Leiderman, Roberts, & Fraleigh, 1987; Paulson, 1996).
A pilot test was used to determine the reliability of these instruments. Twenty
married girls were selected from Ryeishe Parish neighboring Kainamo Parish in
Bumbaire Sub-county and participated in the pilot study. The choice of Ryeishe Parish
was to get respondents who were similar to those in Kainamo Parish and also to ensure
that the girls who participated in the study would not be part of the final study sample.
These respondents filled questionnaires and, from this, reliability was tested using
Cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficient. The reliability for the pilot study was .72 for the
Spirituality Scale and .75 for the Academic Achievement Scale while that of the actual
16
study was .76 for the Spirituality Scale and .81 for the Academic Achievement Scale,
which were above the recommended reliability of .70 by Amin (2005). Thus, the
questionnaire was considered suitable for the study.
Validity was assessed with the help of two experts from the Institute of
Psychology who were given the questionnaire to comment on the ambiguity or clarity of
the questions and then they rated whether each item was relevant or not. The rating was
used to calculate the Content Validity Index (CVI). The CVI for the pilot study was .73
for the Spirituality Scale and .78 for the Academic Achievement Scale while that of the
final study was .82 for the Spirituality Scale and .86 for the Academic Achievement
Scale, which were above the recommended validity of .70 by Amin (2005). Thus, the
instrument was deemed sufficiently valid for this study.
Procedure
The researcher got an introductory letter from the Institute of Psychology that was
presented to the LC chairpersons in Kainamo Parish in Bumbaire Sub-county. After
obtaining permission, a date and time to conduct the study was agreed upon. The
researcher, with the help of a female LC official, explained the purpose of the study to the
respondents, dispelled any fears that were held by the respondents, and then proceeded to
administer the research instrument singularly from the respondents’ houses. Caution was
taken to ensure that all questions were responded to by going through the entire
questionnaire while the respondent was still around, and any questions that were not
answered, the respondents were requested politely to answer. The respondents were
assured of confidentiality. Completed questionnaires were then collected for data
analysis.
17
Data Management
Regarding the Spirituality Scale (SS), twelve items (1, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 14, 15,
17 and 19) were positive, with high scores indicating high spirituality. There were eight
negative items (2, 3, 10, 12, 13, 16, 18 and 20) with low scores indicating low spirituality.
These eight items were reverse coded so that the low scores indicated high spirituality.
Therefore, during analysis, these items were combined to form a summary score that
ranged potentially from 20 to 100, with high scores indicating high spirituality. Using the
33rd and 67th percentiles, the range for low spirituality was determined as 20 to 46.4, for
moderate spirituality was 46.5 to 73.5 and high spirituality was determined as to 73.6 to
100.
As for Academic Achievement, students’ responses to the first item were coded to
range from 1 (Mostly F’s) to 6 (Mostly A’s). Responses to the second item were coded
from 1 (None) to 4 (Three or More). Responses to the last item were coded from 1
(Worse than Most) to 3 (Better than Most). These items were combined to form a
summary scale that ranged from 3 to 13, with higher scores indicating higher academic
performance. Using the 33rd and 67th percentiles the range for the low academic
achievement was determined as 3 to 6.3, for moderate academic achievement was 6.4 to
9.6 and high academic achievement was determined as to 9.7 to 13.
Analysis
The data was coded then entered into the Statistical Package for Social Scientists
(SPSS) program for analysis and interpretation. Spearman rank order correlation
coefficient was used to test hypothesis one. This was because the questionnaire adopted
an ordinal scale to measure both spirituality and academic performance. Spearman rank
order correlation coefficient was also used to test hypotheses two and three. This was
because one of the variables, age at marriage, was measured on a continuous/interval
18
scale, while the other variables, spirituality and academic performance, were measured on
ordinal scales.
Limitations
Some of the respondents were unwilling to provide information freely and this
contributed to a delay in data collection, and thus work within the given time frame.
However, the researcher continuously persuaded the respondents to provide information
by assuring them that information would be treated with confidentiality.
The study did not use a control group of respondents who had not dropped out of
school whose spirituality is high and had married at a late age. In addition, the
performance measures used were mainly for Advanced Level, thus information
concerning performance at lower levels was not captured. Thus, the findings cannot be
generalized.
19
Chapter 4
Findings
Introduction
This chapter presents the analysis and interpretation of findings. It is divided into
four sections. The first section presents the findings on personal information. The second
section presents the findings relating to the hypothesis that there is a relationship between
spirituality and academic achievement. The third section presents the findings relating to
the hypothesis that there is a relationship between spirituality and girl-child age at
marriage. The fourth section presents the findings relating to the hypothesis that there is a
relationship between academic achievement and girl-child age at marriage.
Personal Information
The personal information focused on the girl-children’s schooling status, age and
age at marriage. Findings are presented in Tables 1 to 3.
Table 1.
Students by Schooling Status
School status
Frequency Percent
Dropped out of school
57
46.3
Did not drop out of school
66
53.7
Total
123
100.0
Findings in Table 1 show that slightly over a half of the respondents (53.7%) did
not drop out of school while nearly a half dropped out of school. There was an effort to
select both respondents who did not drop out of school and those who dropped out of
school. This was important because dropping out of school; although related to a number
of factors such as financial, medical, culture, academic and personal; may also reflect an
individual’s academic performance. Thus, the study included both respondents with low
and high academic performance
20
Table 2.
Students by Age
Girl-child age Frequency Percent
18
19
20
Total
40
36
47
123
32.5
29.3
38.2
100.0
Findings in Table 2 show that all respondents were aged 18 to 20 years. This
shows that most of the respondents (61.8%) were within the targeted sample of young
married girl adolescents aged 15 to 19 years and thus, most represented the targeted
respondents.
Table 3.
Students by Girl-Child Age at Marriage
Girl-child age at marriage Frequency Percent
15
35
28.5
16
19
15.4
17
24
19.5
18
42
34.1
19
3
2.4
Total
123
100.0
Findings in Table 3 show that most of the respondents (97.6%) got married below
19 years. This further confirms that the targeted sample was of young married girl
adolescents aged 15 to 19 years.
Descriptive Findings on Spirituality, Academic Achievement and Age at Marriage
According to APA (Plonsky, 2007), before performing any inferential analysis, it
is recommended to perform a descriptive analysis of the variables. Therefore, a mean and
standard deviation describe results on all three variables (spirituality, academic
achievement and age at marriage) before establishing the relationship between the
variables. The following were the results.
21
The actual mean and standard deviation scores of spirituality were computed and
compared to Walker’s (2002) mean and standard deviation scores. According to Walker
(2002), the mean score of spirituality was 60 with a standard deviation of 23.5. Yet in this
present study, the mean spirituality score was 70.6 with a standard deviation of 11.6. The
implication of these findings is that generally Ugandan girl-children’s average spirituality
was above Walker’s (2002) average spirituality but the deviation from the average
spirituality was smaller than that of Walker (2002). Walker’s (2002) study was conducted
among a sample of adults from five countries (Norway, England, Germany, Spain and
Israel). Like this study, Walker’s (2002) study was targeted respondents who lived in the
community, thus explicitly excluding persons living in institutions. However, Walker
(2002) restricted his respondents to those from urban areas and yet in this study the
sample included both respondents in urban and rural settings. The possible explanation
why the spirituality mean and standard deviation for the present study differed from that
of Walker (2002) is that Walker tested the Spirituality Scale among adults and pointed
that little is known about its appropriateness for use with adolescents. Another reason for
the difference could be due to the fact that Walker (2002) conducted his study among
urban respondents and yet in this study both rural and urban respondents formed the
sample. Perhaps if Walker (2002) had tested the Spirituality Scale on adolescents both in
rural and urban settings, his results would be similar to the results of the present study.
However, given that Walker’s spirituality scale was subjected to a test of reliability in the
pilot test, it was then adopted for collecting data from adolescents in this present study.
The actual mean and standard deviation of out respondents’ academic
achievement were computed and compared to Walters and Bowen’s (1997) mean and
standard deviation scores. According to Walters and Bowen (1997), the mean score of
academic achievement for their respondents was 8.0 with a standard deviation of 3.3. In
22
this present study, the academic achievement mean score was also 8.0 with a standard
deviation of 3.3. The implication of these findings is that generally girl-children’s
academic achievement was the same as the possible average academic achievement, thus
there was no difference in variation of Ugandan girl-children’s from average academic of
American adolescents achievement by Walters and Bowen (1997). Walters and Bowen’s
(1997) study was conducted among adolescents both boys and girls but this study was
conducted among adolescent girls. Thus, despite the difference in gender aspects, the
reason why the results for this present study were similar to that of Walters and Bowen
(1997) is that in both studies, the Academic Achievement Scale was used on adolescents
and academic grading used in the scale was similar.
The age at marriage mean score for the present sample was 16.7 with a standard
deviation of 1.3. The implication of these findings is that generally girl-age at marriage
was below the national minimal legal age of 18 years for a person to get married as earlier
discussed in the background of this study.
Statistical Findings about Relationships Between Variables
After establishing the descriptive findings, the study established relationships
according to the hypotheses of the study. Findings are presented in the following
subsections.
Relationship between spirituality and academic achievement.
The first hypothesis, “There is a relationship between spirituality and academic
achievement”, was tested using Spearman rank order correlation coefficient to confirm
the relationship. Findings are presented in Table 4.
23
Table 4.
Relationship Between Spirituality and Academic Performance
Students' spirituality
Students' academic achievement
rho = .466
p = .000
n = 123
For Tables 4, 5 and 6, interpretation of the strength of the correlation coefficient is
based on Amin’s (2005) approach. In his approach, he emphasizes that at 0 there is no
relationship, above 0 to .2 it is a very weak relationship, above .2 to .4 it is a weak
relationship, above .4 to .6 it is a moderate relationship, above .6 to .8 it is a strong
relationship, and above .8 to 1 it is a very strong relationship.
Thus, Table 4 shows a significant positive moderate correlation ( rho = .466; p =
.000) between spirituality and academic performance. Thus, the hypothesis that “There is
a relationship between spirituality and academic achievement” was accepted. The positive
nature of the relationship implied that as the girl-child’s spirituality increased, so does her
academic performance, and vice versa. The moderate nature of the relationship implied
that a change in spirituality is moderately related to girl-child’s academic performance.
Relationship between spirituality and girl-child age at marriage.
The second hypothesis, “There is a relationship between spirituality and girl-child
age at marriage”, was tested using Spearman rank order correlation coefficient to confirm
the relationship. Findings are presented in Table 5.
24
Table 5.
Relationship Between Spirituality and Girl-Child Age at Marriage
Students' spirituality
Students' age get marriage
rho = .506
p = .000
n = 123
Table 5 shows a significant positive moderate correlation ( rho = .506; p = .000)
between spirituality and age at marriage. Thus, the hypothesis that “There is a
relationship between spirituality and age at marriage” was accepted. The positive nature
of the relationship implied that as the age at marriage of the girl-child increased so does
her spirituality, and vice versa. The moderate nature of the relationship implied that a
change in the girl-child age at marriage is moderately related to girl-child’s spirituality.
Relationship between academic achievement and girl-child age at marriage.
The third hypothesis, “There is a relationship between academic performance and
girl-child age at marriage”, was tested using Spearman rank order correlation coefficient
to confirm the relationship. Findings are presented in Table 6.
Table 6.
Relationship Between Academic Achievement and Girl-Child Age at Marriage
Students' age at
marriage
Students' academic achievement
rho = .212
p = .018
n = 123
Table 6 shows a significant positive weak correlation ( rho = .212; p = .000)
between academic achievement and age at marriage. Thus, the hypothesis that “There is a
relationship between academic achievement and age at marriage” was accepted. The
25
positive nature of the relationship implied that as the academic achievement of the girlchild increased so does her age at marriage and vice versa. The weak nature of the
relationship implied that a change in the academic achievement is slightly related to girlchild’s age at marriage.
26
Chapter 5
Discussion, Conclusions and Recommendations
Introduction
This chapter presents the discussion, conclusions and recommendations. It is
divided into three sections. The first section presents the discussion according to the
objectives of the study. The second section presents the conclusions drawn from the
discussion. The third section presents the recommendations based on the conclusions.
Discussion
Relationship between spirituality and girl-child age at marriage.
There was a positive moderate relationship between spirituality and academic
performance. Thus, the hypothesis that “There is a relationship between spirituality and
academic achievement” was accepted. The positive nature of the relationship implied that
as girl-child spirituality increased, so does her academic performance. The magnitude of
the relationship was that a change in the girl-child spirituality was moderately related to
girl-child’s academic performance. In particular, descriptive findings revealed that the
girl-children’s spirituality was above the possible average spirituality and the academic
achievement for the girl-children was the same as the possible average academic
achievement.
The findings of this study concur with Kraig (1999), who observed that some
adolescents with high spirituality are much more likely to have good academic
achievement than adolescents with low spirituality. That is, adolescents’ spirituality is
much more likely to be related to their academic progress. The findings also agree with
Lehver (1999) who observed that educational attainment is highest among adolescents
whose spirituality is high.
27
Furthermore, the findings concur with Keohane (2003) who articulated that
students’ spiritual or religious growth is most affected in positive ways by their degree of
spirituality and their academic achievement. However, the study findings are contrary to
the findings by Azam (2004), which showed that under achievement of Bangladeshi and
Pakistani girl-children was blamed on the amount of time they spend in mosques studying
the Koran. The reason that could explain why the findings of this study were similar to
other researchers and yet contrary to others could be attributed to the way girl-children
balance their time between spiritual activities and academic work. This implies that if a
child spends more time in spiritual activities than academic work or spends more time on
academic work than spiritual activities, then the relationship between these two variables
would be negative and hence similar to Azam (2004). Otherwise, the relationship between
these two variables would be positive if child spends more time in both spiritual activities
and academic work, as Walker (2002) observed.
Relationship between spirituality and girl-child age at marriage.
There was a positive moderate relationship between spirituality and age at
marriage. Thus, the hypothesis that “There is a relationship between spirituality and age
at marriage” was accepted. The positive nature of the relationship implied that as the age
at marriage of the girl-child increased so does her spirituality. The magnitude of the
relationship was that a change in the girl-child age at marriage was moderately related to
girl-child’s spirituality. In particular, findings showed that the girl-children’s spirituality
was above the possible average spirituality and at the same time, the girl-children got
married below the recommended 18 years.
The findings of this study concur with Hammond (1993) who showed that there is
a positive relationship between spirituality and girl-child age at marriage. Similarly, the
findings agree with Landis (2003) who argued that less involvement in religious activities
28
is considered a potential predictor of early child marriage among girl-children. In
addition, the findings of this study reflect those of Hammond (1991) who established that
frequency of church attendance is significantly related to marriage age for both males and
females, irrespective of their denomination.
Thus, findings of this study show that if girl-children’s spirituality is high the
more they will wait until older to get married. Thus, it is important to improve or increase
girl-children’s spirituality to deter them from marrying at an early age.
Relationship between academic achievement and girl-child age at marriage.
There was a positive weak relationship between academic achievement and age at
marriage. Thus, the hypothesis that “There is a relationship between academic
achievement and age at marriage” was accepted. The positive nature of the relationship
implied that as the academic achievement of the girl-child improves, girl-children tend to
marry later. The magnitude of the relationship was that a change in the academic
achievement was slightly related to girl-child’s age at marriage.
These findings show that academic achievement plays a role in the timing of the
age at marriage of adolescent girls. The findings agree with Walker (2002) who found
that students’ academic achievement could affect the likelihood of marriage while in
school, particularly for girls. Furthermore, findings concur with Lloyd (2006) who
established the effect of educational attainment in raising the age at marriage.
In the same light findings of this study concur with Trusty and Watts (1999) who
found that poorer school progress and performance, as measured by temporary school
withdrawal and grade repetition, are positively and significantly associated with the
likelihood of getting married at a young age. However, the findings are contrary to
Walker (2002) who argued that a delay in school exit does not necessarily lead to a delay
29
in marriage. His argument is that even when a child is still schooling, she can be already
married. That is, a girl may be married but continue to pursue her education.
Thus, the findings of this study demonstrate the importance of having girl-children
continuing with education because this would reduce the likelihood of getting married at
an early age. This would help them avoid the negative consequences associated with early
marriage.
Conclusions
This study confirmed the relationship that as the girl-child spirituality increases so
does her academic performance and that girl-child spirituality is related to a moderate
change in the girl-child’s academic performance. These findings were similar to other
researchers and shows the importance of girl-child spirituality when it comes to decisions
regarding the age at which girls should get married.
It was established that as the spirituality of the girl-child increases so does her age
at marriage and a change in the girl-child age at marriage is related to a moderate change
in the girl-child’s spirituality. This suggests that if spirituality is the search for or the
development of inner peace or the foundations of happiness, then spirituality is essential
for personal well being in terms of girl-children marrying at a later age.
The study found out that as the academic achievement of the girl-child improves,
girl-children tend to marry late and that a change in the academic achievement is related
to a small change in the girl-child’s age at marriage. This finding emphasizes the
importance of ensuring the girl-children excel in their academics if they are to marry at a
later age. Thus, this finding is important to various stakeholders (parents, teachers, school
administrators and official from ministry of education) who are in position to influence
girl-children’s academic achievement.
30
Recommendations
Girl-children should be encouraged to be involved in spiritual activities if their
academic performance is to be higher and if their age at married is to be delayed. This can
be achieved through sensitizing the girl-children on spiritual activities, and holding
seminars including workshops for the girl-children on the same, which can be organized
by religious leaders together with the school administration.
In addition, girl-children should be encouraged to continue with schooling if they
are to marry at a later age. Similarly, school administration, Ministry of Education and
Sports, and NGOs could organize and conduct sensitization, seminars and workshops
about the importance of girl-child education to achieve this.
Area for Further Study
A study comparing boys against girls on the spirituality, age at marriage and
academic achievement should be conducted given that the study found a positive
relationship between spirituality, age at marriage and academic achievement but this was
found among girl-children only. In addition, a comparison of academic achievement and
age at marriage on spirituality of different religions should be conducted. These could
highlight some issues that were not covered in this study.
31
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36
Appendix A
Questionnaire for students
This is a questionnaire requiring you to provide me with information that will
assist me in completing my dissertation in Master of Arts in Counselling. Answer all the
questions truthfully and all the information you provide will be treated with
confidentiality. Thank you in advance.
Section A: Personal Information
a)
Your age___________________years
b)
At what age did you get married?_________________
Section A: Spirituality
Please circle how much you agree or disagree with the following statements
1-My spiritual beliefs gave me meaningful experience.
a-Strongly agree
b-Agree
c-Not sure
d- Disagree
e-Strongly disagree.
c-Not sure
d- Disagree
e-Strongly disagree.
c-Not sure
d- Disagree
e-Strongly disagree.
d- Disagree
e-Strongly disagree.
2- I did not understand God.
a-Strongly agree
b-Agree
3- I had no sense of spirituality.
a-Strongly agree
b-Agree
4- I felt connected to other living things.
a-Strongly agree
b-Agree
c-Not sure
5- My religious beliefs helped me find a purpose even in the most painful and most
confusing events.
a-Strongly agree
b-Agree
c-Not sure
d- Disagree
e-Strongly disagree.
6- When I lost touch with God I had a harder time feeling that there was a purpose and
meaning.
37
a-Strongly agree
b-Agree
c-Not sure
d- Disagree
e-Strongly disagree.
7- My spiritual beliefs gave my life a sense of significance and purpose.
a-Strongly agree
b-Agree
c-Not sure
d- Disagree
e-Strongly disagree.
8- My mission in life was guided by my faith in God.
a-Strongly agree
b-Agree
c-Not sure
d- Disagree
e-Strongly disagree.
9- When I was disconnected from the spiritual dimension, I lost my sense of purpose.
a-Strongly agree
b-Agree
c-Not sure
d- Disagree
e-Strongly disagree.
10- My friendship with God did not help me find meaning in the ups and downs of life.
a-Strongly agree
b-Agree
c-Not sure
d- Disagree
e-Strongly disagree.
11- My life was significant because I was part of God’s plan.
a-Strongly agree
b-Agree
c-Not sure
d- Disagree
e-Strongly disagree.
12- What I tried to do in my day-to-day life was not important to me from a spiritual point
of view.
a-Strongly agree
b-Agree
c-Not sure
d- Disagree
e-Strongly disagree.
d- Disagree
e-Strongly disagree.
13- I failed to fulfil my God-given purpose in life.
a-Strongly agree
b-Agree
c-Not sure
14- Knowing that I was part of something greater than myself gave meaning to my life.
a-Strongly agree
b-Agree
c-Not sure
d- Disagree
e-Strongly disagree.
15- Looking at the most troubling events from a spiritual perspective added meaning to
my life.
a-Strongly agree
b-Agree
c-Not sure
d- Disagree
e-Strongly disagree.
16- My purpose did not reflect what god wanted for me.
a-Strongly agree
b-Agree
c-Not sure
d- Disagree
e-Strongly disagree.
38
17- Without my religious foundation my life would have been meaningless.
a-Strongly agree
b-Agree
c-Not sure
d- Disagree
e-Strongly disagree.
d- Disagree
e-Strongly disagree.
18- God did not play a role in how I chose my path.
a-Strongly agree
b-Agree
c-Not sure
19- My feeling of spirituality added meaning to the events in my life.
a-Strongly agree
b-Agree
c-Not sure
d- Disagree
e-Strongly disagree.
20- My spirituality did not help me define the goals I set for myself.
a-Strongly agree
b-Agree
c-Not sure
d- Disagree
e-Strongly disagree.
Section B: Academic achievement
Please circle responses you fill are applicable to the following statements
1. Report the kind of grades that you made on your exams.
a = Mostly F’s
b= Mostly Es
c = Mostly D’s
e = Mostly B’s
f = Mostly A’s
d = Mostly Cs
2. Report the number of D’s E’s and F’s that you made on your exams
a = None
b = One
c = Two
d = Three or More
3. Compare your grades to other students in your former classes
a = Worse than Most
b = Same like others
c = Better than Most
39
Appendix B
Yamane’ (1967) sample size table
Sample size for ±3%, ±5%, ±7% and ±10% Precision Levels Where Confidence Level is
95% and P=.5.
Size of
Sample Size (n) for Precision (e) of:
Population
±3%
±5%
±7%
±10%
500
a
222
145
83
600
a
240
152
86
700
a
255
158
88
800
a
267
163
89
900
a
277
166
90
a
286
169
91
2,000
714
333
185
95
3,000
811
353
191
97
4,000
870
364
194
98
5,000
909
370
196
98
6,000
938
375
197
98
7,000
959
378
198
99
8,000
976
381
199
99
9,000
989
383
200
99
10,000
1,000
385
200
99
15,000
1,034
390
201
99
20,000
1,053
392
204
100
25,000
1,064
394
204
100
50,000
1,087
397
204
100
100,000
1,099
398
204
100
>100,000
1,111
400
204
100
1,000
a = Assumption of normal population is poor (Yamane, 1967). The entire population
should be sampled.