Gregory’s Pediatric Anesthesia Chapter 13 - References 1. IoM Committee on the Quality of Health Care in America. Crossing the Quality Chasm – A New Health System for the 21st Century. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 2001. 2. Rutherford J, Stevenson R. Careful physical examination is essential in the preoperative assessment of children for dental extractions under general anesthesia. Paediatr Anaesth 2004; 14: 920–3. 3. Morray JP, Geiduschek JM, Caplan RA et al. A comparison of pediatric and adult anesthesia closed malpractice claims. Anesthesiology 1993; 78: 461–7. 4. Warner MA, Lunn RJ, O'Leary PW et al. Outcomes of noncardiac surgical procedures in children and adults with congenital heart disease. Mayo Perioperative Outcomes Group. Mayo Clin Proc 1998; 73: 728–34. 5. Tiret L, Nivoche Y, Hatton F et al. Complications related to anaesthesia in infants and children. A prospective survey of 40240 anaesthetics. Br J Anaesth 1988; 61: 263–9. 6. Tay CL, Tan GM, Ng SB. Critical incidents in paediatric anaesthesia: an audit of 10 000 anaesthetics in Singapore. Paediatr Anaesth 2001; 11: 711–18. 7. Cohen MM, Cameron CB, Duncan PG. Pediatric anesthesia morbidity and mortality in the perioperative period. Anesth Analg 1990; 70: 160–7. 8. Bordet F, Allaouchiche B, Lansiaux S et al. Risk factors for airway complications during general anaesthesia in paediatric patients. Paediatr Anaesth 2002; 12: 762–9. 9. Mamie C, Habre W, Delhumeau C, Argiroffo CB, Morabla A. Incidence and risk factors of perioperative respiratory adverse events in children undergoing elective surgery. Paediatr Anaesth 2004; 14: 218–24. 10. Schreiner MS, O'Hara I, Markakis DA, Politis GD. Do children who experience laryngospasm have an increased risk of upper respiratory tract infection? Anesthesiology 1996; 85: 475–80. 11. Bharti N, Batra YK, Kaur H. Paediatric perioperative cardiac arrest and its mortality: database of a 60-month period from a tertiary care paediatric centre. Eur J Anaesthesiol 2009; 26: 490–5. 12. Aleksic V, Radulovic D, Milakovic B et al. A retrospective analysis of anesthesiologic complications in pediatric neurosurgery. Paediatr Anaesth 2009; 19: 879–86. 13. Aplin S, Baines D, DE Lima J. Use of the ASA Physical Status Grading System in pediatric practice. Paediatr Anaesth 2007; 17: 216–22. 14. Olsson GL, Hallen B. Laryngospasm during anaesthesia. A computer-aided incidence study in 136,929 patients. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1984; 28: 567–75. 15. Tait AR, Malviya S, Voepel-Lewis T, Munro HM, Selwert M, Pandit UA. Risk factors for perioperative adverse respiratory events in children with upper respiratory tract infections. Anesthesiology 2001; 95: 299–306. 16. Charuluxananan S, Suraseranivongse S, Punjasawadwong Y et al. Risk factors of intraoperative oxygen desaturation: a case-control study of 152,314 anesthetics. J Med Assoc Thai 2007; 90: 2359–65. 17. Sanders JC, King MA, Mitchell RB, Kelly JP. Perioperative complications of adenotonsillectomy in children with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome. Anesth Analg 2006; 103: 1115–21. 18. Tait AR, Voepel-Lewis T, Burke C et al. Incidence and risk factors for perioperative adverse respiratory events in children who are obese. Anesthesiology 2008; 108: 375–80. 19. Setzer N, Saade E. Childhood obesity and anesthetic morbidity. Paediatr Anaesth 2007; 17: 321–6. 20. Nafiu OO, Green GE, Walton S, Morris M, Reddy S, Tremper KK. Obesity and risk of perioperative complications in children presenting for adenotonsillectomy. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol 2009; 73: 89–95. 21. Skolnick ET, Vomvolakis MA, Buck KA, Mannino SF, Sun LS. Exposure to environmental tobacco smoke and the risk of adverse respiratory events in children receiving general anesthesia. Anesthesiology 1998; 88: 1144–53. 22. Von Ungern-Sternberg BS, Boda K, Chambers NA et al. Risk assessment for respiratory complications in paediatric anaesthesia: a prospective cohort study. Lancet 2010; 376: 773–83. 23. Borland LM, Colligan J, Brandom BW. Frequency of anesthesia-related complications in children with Down syndrome under general anesthesia for noncardiac procedures. Paediatr Anaesth 2004; 14: 733–8. 24. Kain ZN, Caldwell-Andrews AA, Maranets I et al. Preoperative anxiety and emergence delirium and postoperative maladaptive behaviors. Anesth Analg 2004; 99: 1648–54. 25. Kain ZN, Mayes LC, Caldwell-Andrews AA, Karas DE, McClain BC. Preoperative anxiety, postoperative pain, and behavioral recovery in young children undergoing surgery. Pediatrics 2006; 118: 651–8. 26. Fortier MA, Chorney JM, Rony RYZ et al. Children's desire for perioperative information. Anesth Analg 2009; 109: 1085–90. 27. Kain ZN, Wang SM, Caramico LA, Hofstadter M, Mayes LC. Parental desire for perioperative information and informed consent: a two-phase study. Anesth Analg 1997; 84: 299–306. 28. Wisselo TL, Stuart C, Muris P. Providing parents with information before anaesthesia: what do they really want to know? Paediatr Anaesth 2004; 14: 299–307. 29. Spencer C, Franck LS. Giving parents written information about children's anesthesia: are setting and timing important? Paediatr Anaesth 2005; 15: 547–53. 30. Cassady JF Jr, Wysocki TT, Miller KM, Cancel DD, Izenberg N. Use of a preanesthetic video for facilitation of parental education and anxiolysis before pediatric ambulatory surgery. Anesth Analg 1999; 88: 246–50. 31. Bellew M, Atkinson KR, Dixon G, Yates A. The introduction of a paediatric anaesthesia information leaflet: an audit of its impact on parental anxiety and satisfaction. Paediatr Anaesth 2002; 12: 124–30. 32. Chan CSM, Molassiotis A. The effects of an educational programme on the anxiety and satisfaction level of parents having parent present induction and visitation in a postanaesthesia care unit. Paediatr Anaesth 2002; 12: 131–9. 33. Rice M, Glasper A, Keeton D, Spargo P. The effect of a preoperative education programme on perioperative anxiety in children: an observational study. Paediatr Anaesth 2008; 18: 426–30. 34. Ferschl MB, Tung A, Sweitzer B, Huo D, Glick DB. Preoperative clinic visits reduce operating room cancellations and delays. Anesthesiology 2005; 103: 855–9. 35. Ferrari LR. Preoperative evaluation of pediatric surgical patients with multisystem considerations. Anesth Analg 2004; 99: 1058–69. 36. Patel RI, Hannallah RS. Preoperative screening for pediatric ambulatory surgery: evaluation of a telephone questionnaire method. Anesth Analg 1992; 75: 258–61. 37. Kerridge R, Lee A, Latchford E, Beehan SJ, Hillman KM. The perioperative system: a new approach to managing elective surgery. Anaesth Intensive Care 1995; 23: 591–6. 38. Van Klei WA, Moons KG, Rutten CL et al. The effect of outpatient preoperative evaluation of hospital inpatients on cancellation of surgery and length of hospital stay. Anesth Analg 2002; 94: 644–9. 39. Wijeysundera DN, Austin PC, Beattie WS, Hux JE, Laupacis A. A population-based study of anesthesia consultation before major noncardiac surgery. Arch Intern Med 2009; 169: 595–602. 40. Klopfenstein CE, Forster A, van Gessel E. Anesthetic assessment in an outpatient consultation clinic reduces preoperative anxiety. Can J Anaesth 2000; 47: 511–15. 41. Fischer SP. Development and effectiveness of an anesthesia preoperative evaluation clinic in a teaching hospital. Anesthesiology 1996; 85: 196–206. 42. Wittkugel EP, Varughese AM. Pediatric preoperative evaluation – a new paradigm. Int Anesthesiol Clin 2006; 44: 141–58. 43. Mangia G, Presutti P, Antonucci A. Bianco F, Bonomo R, Ferrari P. Diagnostic accuracy of anesthesiology evaluation timing: the 'One-Stop Anesthesia' in pediatric day-surgery. Paediatr Anaesth 2009; 19: 764–9. 44. Varughese AM, Byczkowski TL, Wittkugel EP, Kotagal U, Dean Kurth C. Impact of a nurse practitioner-assisted preoperative assessment program on quality. Paediatr Anaesth 2006; 16: 723– 33. 45. Kain ZN, MacLaren JE, Hammell C et al. Healthcare provider-child-parent communication in the preoperative surgical setting. Paediatr Anaesth 2009; 19: 376–84. 46. Estes NA 3rd. Sudden cardiac arrest from primary electrical diseases: provoking concealed arrhythmogenic syndromes. Circulation 2005; 112: 2220–1. 47. Eberhart LHJ, Geldner G, Kranke P et al. The development and validation of a risk score to predict the probability of postoperative vomiting in pediatric patients. Anesth Analg 2004; 99: 1630– 7, 48. Kranke P, Eberhart LH, Toker H, Roewer N, Wulf H, Kiefer P. A prospective evaluation of the POVOC score for the prediction of postoperative vomiting in children. Anesth Analg 2007; 105: 1592–7. 49. Siebert JN, Posfay-Barbe KM, Habre W, Siegrist CA. Influence of anesthesia on immune responses and its effect on vaccination in children: review of evidence. Paediatr Anaesth 2007; 17: 410–20. 50. Von Ungern-Sternberg BS, Habre W. Pediatric anesthesia – potential risks and their assessment: part II. Paediatr Anaesth 2007; 17: 311–20. 51. Anderson BJ, Meakin GH. Scaling for size: some implications for paediatric anaesthesia dosing. Paediatr Anaesth 2002; 12: 205–19. 52. Lack JA, Stuart-Taylor ME. Calculation of drug dosage and body surface area of children. Br J Anaesth 1997; 78: 601–5. 53. Wabitsch M. Overweight and obesity in European children: definition and diagnostic procedures, risk factors and consequences for later health outcome. Eur J Pediatr 2000; 159 Suppl 1: S8–13. 54. Smith HL, Meldrum DJ, Brennan LJ. Childhood obesity: a challenge for the anaesthetist? Paediatr Anaesth 2002; 12: 750–61. 55. Hannallah RS. Preoperative investigations. Paediatr Anaesth 1995; 5: 325–9. 56. Roizen MF. The compelling rationale for less preoperative testing. Can J Anaesth 1988; 35: 214–18. 57. O'Connor ME, Drasner K. Preoperative laboratory testing of children undergoing elective surgery. Anesth Analg 1990; 70: 176–80. 58. Meneghini L, Zadra N, Zanette G, Baiocchi M, Giusti F. The usefulness of routine preoperative laboratory tests for one-day surgery in healthy children. Paediatr Anaesth 1998; 8: 11–15. 59. Munro J, Booth A, Nicholl J. Routine preoperative testing: a systematic review of the evidence. Health Technol Assess 1997; 1: i–iv; 1–62. 60. Perez A, Planell J, Bacardaz C et al. Value of routine preoperative tests: a multicentre study in four general hospitals. Br J Anaesth 1995; 74: 250–6. 61. Smetana GW, Macpherson DS. The case against routine preoperative laboratory testing. Med Clin North Am 2003; 87: 7–40. 62. Roizen MF. More preoperative assessment by physicians and less by laboratory tests. N Engl J Med 2000; 342: 204–5. 63. Roy WL, Lerman J, McIntyre BG. Is preoperative haemoglobin testing justified in children undergoing minor elective surgery? Can J Anaesth 1991; 38: 700–3. 64. Hackmann T, Steward DJ, Sheps SB. Anemia in pediatric day-surgery patients: prevalence and detection. Anesthesiology 1991; 75: 27–31. 65. Bernstein MJ. Perioperative red blood cell transfusion. JAMA 1988; 260: 2700–3. 66. Baron MJ, Gunter J, White P. Is the pediatric preoperative hematocrit determination necessary? South Med J 1992; 85: 1187–9. 67. Coté CJ, Zaslavsky A, Downes JJ et al. Postoperative apnea in former preterm infants after inguinal herniorrhaphy. A combined analysis. Anesthesiology 1995; 82: 809–22. 68. Welborn LG, Hannallah RS, Luban NL, Fink R, Ruttimann UE. Anemia and postoperative apnea in former preterm infants. Anesthesiology 1991; 74: 1003–6. 69. Serjeant GR. Sickle-cell disease. Lancet 1997; 350: 725–30. 70. Banerjee AK, Layton DM, Rennie JA, Bellingham AJ. Safe surgery in sickle cell disease. Br J Surg 1991; 78: 516–17. 71. Pemberton PL, Down JF, Porter JB, Bromley LM. A retrospective observational study of preoperative sickle cell screening. Anaesthesia 2002; 57: 334–7. 72. Baraka A, Haddock G, Roussis X, Leventis J, Fyfe AH. An audit of sickle cell screening in a paediatric hospital population. Scott Med J 1994;. 39: 84–5. 73. Crawford MW, Galton S, Abdelhaleem M. Preoperative screening for sickle cell disease in children: clinical implications. Can J Anaesth 2005; 52: 1058–63. 74. Gibson BE, Todd A, Roberts I et al. Transfusion guidelines for neonates and older children. Br J Haematol 2004; 124: 433–53. 75. Firth PG, Head CA. Sickle cell disease and anesthesia. Anesthesiology 2004; 101: 766–85. 76. Marchant WA, Walker I. Anaesthetic management of the child with sickle cell disease. Paediatr Anaesth 2003; 13: 473–89. 77. Chee YL, Greaves M. Role of coagulation testing in predicting bleeding risk. Hematol J 2003; 4: 373–8. 78. Le Roux C, Lejus C, Surbleb M et al. Is haemostasis biological screening always useful before performing a neuraxial blockade in children? Paediatr Anaesth 2002; 12: 118–23. 79. Scharrer I, Schramm W. 36th Hemophilia Symposium: Hamburg 2005. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 2007. 80. Kitchens CS. To bleed or not to bleed? Is that the question for the PTT? J Thromb Haemost 2005; 3: 2607–11. 81. Krishna P, Lee D. Post-tonsillectomy bleeding: a meta-analysis. Laryngoscope 2001; 111: 1358– 61. 82. Asaf T, Reuveni H, Yermiahu T et al. The need for routine pre-operative coagulation screening tests (prothrombin time PT/partial thromboplastin time PTT) for healthy children undergoing elective tonsillectomy and/or adenoidectomy. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol 2001; 61: 217–22. 83. Jonnavithula N, Durga P, Pochiraju R, Anne KK, Ramachandran G. Routine preoperative coagulation screening detects a rare bleeding disorder. Anesth Analg 2009; 108: 76–8. 84. Hastings LA, Wood JC, Harris B et al. Cardiac medications are not associated with clinically important preoperative electrolyte disturbances in children presenting for cardiac surgery. Anesth Analg 2008; 107: 1840–7. 85. Brill PW, Ewing ML, Dunn AA. The value of routine chest radiography in children and adolescents. Pediatrics 1973; 52: 125–7. 86. Wood RA, Hoekelman RA. Value of the chest X-ray as a screening test for elective surgery in children. Pediatrics 1981; 67: 447–52. 87. Committe on Hospital Care. Preoperative chest radiographs. Pediatrics 1983; 71: 858. 88. Anghelescu DL, Burgoyne LL, Liu T et al. Clinical and diagnostic imaging findings predict anesthetic complications in children presenting with malignant mediastinal masses. Paediatr Anaesth 2007; 17: 1090–8. 89. Hammer GB. Anaesthetic management for the child with a mediastinal mass. Paediatr Anaesth 2004; 14: 95–7. 90. Warner MA, Warner ME, Warner DO, Warner LO, Warner EJ. Perioperative pulmonary aspiration in infants and children. Anesthesiology 1999; 90: 66–71. 91. Brady M, Kinn S, Ness V, O'Rourke K, Randhawa N, Stuart P. Preoperative fasting for preventing perioperative complications in children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2009; 4: CD005285. 92. Castillo-Zamora C, Castillo-Peralta LA, Nava-Ocampo AA. Randomized trial comparing overnight preoperative fasting period Vs oral administration of apple juice at 06: 00–06: 30 am in pediatric orthopedic surgical patients. Paediatr Anaesth 2005; 15: 638–42. 93. Litman RS, Wu CL, Quinlivan JK. Gastric volume and pH in infants fed clear liquids and breast milk prior to surgery. Anesth Analg 1994; 79: 482–5. 94. Billeaud C, Guillet J, Sandler B. Gastric emptying in infants with or without gastro-oesophageal reflux according to the type of milk. Eur J Clin Nutr 1990; 44: 577–83. 95. Sethi AK, Chatterji C, Bhargava SK, Narang P, Tyagi A. Safe pre-operative fasting times after milk or clear fluid in children. A preliminary study using real-time ultrasound. Anaesthesia 1999; 54: 51–9. 96. Cook-Sather SD, Litman RS. Modern fasting guidelines in children. Best Pract Res Clin Anaesthesiol 2006; 20: 471–81. 97. Cook-Sather SD, Harris KA, Chiavacci R, Gallagher PR, Schreiner MS. A liberalized fasting guideline for formula-fed infants does not increase average gastric fluid volume before elective surgery. Anesth Analg 2003; 96: 965–9. 98. Emerson BM, Wrigley SR, Newton M. Pre-operative fasting for paediatric anaesthesia. A survey of current practice. Anaesthesia 1998; 53: 326–30. 99. Ferrari LR, Rooney FM, Rockoff MA. Preoperative fasting practices in pediatrics. Anesthesiology 1999; 90: 978–80. 100. Warner MA, Caplan RA, Epstein BS et al. Practice guidelines for preoperative fasting and the use of pharmacologic agents to reduce the risk of pulmonary aspiration: application to healthy patients undergoing elective procedures. Anesthesiology 1999; 90: 896–905. 101. Tolia V, Kuhns L, Kauffman R. Correlation of gastric emptying at one and two hours following formula feeding. Pediatr Radiol 1993; 23: 26–8. 102. Splinter WM, Schreiner MS. Preoperative fasting in children. Anesth Analg 1999; 89: 80–9. 103. Warner DO, Warner MA, Barnes RD et al. Perioperative respiratory complications in patients with asthma. Anesthesiology 1996; 85: 460–7. 104. Cheney FW, Posner KL, Caplan RA. Adverse respiratory events infrequently leading to malpractice suits. A closed claims analysis. Anesthesiology 1991; 75: 932–9. 105. Von Ungern-Sternberg BS, Habre W. Pediatric anesthesia – potential risks and their assessment: part I. Paediatr Anaesth 2007; 17: 206–15. 106. Whyte MK, Choudry NB, Ind PW. Bronchial hyperresponsiveness in patients recovering from acute severe asthma. Respir Med 1993; 87: 29–35. 107. Silvanus M-T, Groeben H, Peters J. Corticosteroids and inhaled salbutamol in patients with reversible airway obstruction markedly decrease the incidence of bronchospasm after tracheal intubation. Anesthesiology 2004; 100: 1052–7. 108. Pien LC, Grammer LC, Patterson R. Minimal complications in a surgical population with severe asthma receiving prophylactic corticosteroids. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1988; 82: 696–700. 109. Kabalin CS, Yarnold PR, Grammer LC. Low complication rate of corticosteroid-treated asthmatics undergoing surgical procedures. Arch Intern Med 1995; 155: 1379–84. 110. Von Ungern-Sternberg BS, Habre W. Pediatric anesthesia – potential risks and their assessment: part I. Paediatric Anaesth 2007; 17: 206–15. 111. Maslow AD, Regan MM, Israel E et al. Inhaled albuterol, but not intravenous lidocaine, protects against intubation-induced bronchoconstriction in asthma. Anesthesiology 2000; 93: 1198–204. 112. Kil HK, Rooke GA, Ryan-Dykes MA et al. Effect of prophylactic bronchodilator treatment on lung resistance after tracheal intubation. Anesthesiology 1994; 81: 43–8. 113. Scalfaro P, Sly PD, Sims C, Habre W. Salbutamol prevents the increase of respiratory resistance caused by tracheal intubation during sevoflurane anesthesia in asthmatic children. Anesth Analg 2001; 93: 898–902. 114. Craig ME, Hattersley A, Donaghue KC. Definition, epidemiology and classification of diabetes in children and adolescents. Pediatr Diabetes 2009; 10 Suppl 12: 3–12. 115. Cruse PJ, Foord R. A five-year prospective study of 23,649 surgical wounds. Arch Surg 1973; 107: 206–10. 116. Rhodes ET, Ferrari LR, Wolfsdorf JI. Perioperative management of pediatric surgical patients with diabetes mellitus. Anesth Analg 2005; 101: 986–99. 117. Shenkman Z, Rockoff MA, Eldredge EA, Korf BR, Black PM, Soriano SG. Anaesthetic management of children with tuberous sclerosis. Paediatr Anaesth 2002; 12: 700–4. 118. Soriano SG, Sullivan LJ, Venkatakrishnan K, Greenblatt DJ, Martyn JA. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of vecuronium in children receiving phenytoin or carbamazepine for chronic anticonvulsant therapy. Br J Anaesth 2001; 86: 223–9. 119. Soriano SG, Kaus SJ, Sullivan LJ, Martyn JA. Onset and duration of action of rocuronium in children receiving chronic anticonvulsant therapy. Paediatr Anaesth 2000; 10: 133–6. 120. Tempelhoff R, Modica PA, Spitznagel EL Jr. Anticonvulsant therapy increases fentanyl requirements during anaesthesia for craniotomy. Can J Anaesth 1990; 37: 327–32. 121. Ren WH. Anesthetic management of epileptic pediatric patients. Int Anesthesiol Clin 2009; 47: 101–16. 122. Hatton KW, McLarney JT, Pittman T, Fahy BG. Vagal nerve stimulation: overview and implications for anesthesiologists. Anesth Analg 2006; 103: 1241–9. 123. McLaren MJ, Lachman AS, Pocock WA, Barlow JB. Innocent murmurs and third heart sounds in Black schoolchildren. Br Heart J 1980; 43: 67–73. 124. Rosenthal A. How to distinguish between innocent and pathologic murmurs in childhood. Pediatr Clin North Am 1984; 31: 1229–40. 125. Pelech AN. The cardiac murmur. When to refer? Pediatr Clin North Am 1998; 45: 107–22. 126. McEwan AI, Birch M, Bingham R. The preoperative management of the child with a heart murmur. Paediatr Anaesth 1995; 5: 151–6. 127. Wilson W, Taubert KA, Gewitz M et al. Prevention of infective endocarditis: guidelines from the American Heart Association: a guideline from the American Heart Association Rheumatic Fever, Endocarditis, and Kawasaki Disease Committee, Council on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young, and the Council on Clinical Cardiology, Council on Cardiovascular Surgery and Anesthesia, and the Quality of Care and Outcomes Research Interdisciplinary Working Group. Circulation 2007; 116: 1736–54. 128. Brietzke SE, Katz ES, Roberson DW. Can history and physical examination reliably diagnose pediatric obstructive sleep apnea/hypopnea syndrome? A systematic review of the literature. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2004; 131: 827–32. 129. Schwengel DA, Sterni LM, Tunkel DE, Heitmiller ES. Perioperative management of children with obstructive sleep apnea. Anesth Analg 2009; 109: 60–75. 130. Latham GJ, Greenberg RS. Anesthetic considerations for the pediatric oncology patient – part 1: a review of antitumor therapy. Paediatr Anaesth 2010; 20: 295–304. 131. Latham GJ, Greenberg RS. Anesthetic considerations for the pediatric oncology patient – part 3: pain, cognitive dysfunction, and preoperative evaluation. Paediatr Anaesth 2010; 20: 479–89. 132. Latham GJ, Greenberg RS. Anesthetic considerations for the pediatric oncology patient – part 2: systems-based approach to anesthesia. Paediatr Anaesth 2010; 20: 396–420. 133. Tait AR, Malviya S. Anesthesia for the child with an upper respiratory tract infection: still a dilemma? Anesth Analg 2005; 100: 59–65. 134. Parnis SJ, Barker DS, van Der Walt JH. Clinical predictors of anaesthetic complications in children with respiratory tract infections. Paediatr Anaesth 2001; 11: 29–40. 135. Flick RP, Wilder RT, Pieper SF et al. Risk factors for laryngospasm in children during general anesthesia. Paediatr Anaesth 2008; 18: 289–96. 136. Rolf N, Coté CJ. Frequency and severity of desaturation events during general anesthesia in children with and without upper respiratory infections. J Clin Anesth 1992; 4: 200–3. 137. Olsson GL. Bronchospasm during anaesthesia. A computer-aided incidence study of 136,929 patients. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1987 31: 244–52. 138. Levy L, Pandit UA, Randel GI, Lewis IH, Tait AR. Upper respiratory tract infections and general anaesthesia in children. Peri-operative complications and oxygen saturation. Anaesthesia 1992; 47: 678–82. 139. DeSoto H, Patel RI, Soliman IE, Hannallah RS. Changes in oxygen saturation following general anesthesia in children with upper respiratory infection signs and symptoms undergoing otolaryngological procedures. Anesthesiology 1988; 68: 276–9. 140. Coté CJ. The upper respiratory tract infection (URI) dilemma: fear of a complication or litigation? Anesthesiology 2001; 95: 283–5. 141. Coté CJ (ed). Practice of Anesthesia for Infants and Children, 4th edn. Philadelphia: SaundersElsevier, 2009. 142. Malviya S, Voepel-Lewis T, Siewert M, Pandit UA, Riegger LQ, Tait AR. Risk factors for adverse postoperative outcomes in children presenting for cardiac surgery with upper respiratory tract infections. Anesthesiology 2003; 98: 628–32. 143. Von Ungern-Sternberg BS, Boda K, Schwab C, Sims C, Johnson C, Habre W. Laryngeal mask airway is associated with an increased incidence of adverse respiratory events in children with recent upper respiratory tract infections. Anesthesiology 2007; 107: 714–19. 144. Tait AR, Pandit UA, Voepel-Lewis T, Munro HM, Malviya S. Use of the laryngeal mask airway in children with upper respiratory tract infections: a comparison with endotracheal intubation. Anesth Analg 1998; 86: 706–11. 145. Tait AR, Voepel-Lewis T, Munro HM, Gutstein HB, Reynolds PI. Cancellation of pediatric outpatient surgery: economic and emotional implications for patients and their families. J Clin Anesth 1997; 9: 213–19. 146. Aquilina AT, Hall WJ, Douglas RG Jr, Utell MJ. Airway reactivity in subjects with viral upper respiratory tract infections: the effects of exercise and cold air. Am Rev Respir Dis 1980; 122: 3–10. 147. Empey DW, Laitinen LA, Jacobs L, Gold WM, Nadel JA. Mechanisms of bronchial hyperreactivity in normal subjects after upper respiratory tract infection. Am Rev Respir Dis 1976; 113: 131–9. 148. Elwood T, Morris W, Martin LD et al. Bronchodilator premedication does not decrease respiratory adverse events in pediatric general anesthesia. Can J Anaesth 2003; 50: 277–84. 149. Von Ungern-Sternberg BS, Habre W, Erb TO, Heaney M. Salbutamol premedication in children with a recent respiratory tract infection. Paediatr Anaesth 2009; 19: 1064–9. 150. Chorney JM, Kain ZN. Behavioral analysis of children's response to induction of anesthesia. Anesth Analg 2009; 109: 1434–40. 151. Davidson AJ, Shrivastava PP, Jamsen K et al. Risk factors for anxiety at induction of anesthesia in children: a prospective cohort study. Paediatr Anaesth 2006; 16: 919–27. 152. Thomas J. Brute force or gentle persuasion. Paediatr Anaesth 2005; 15: 355–7. 153. Kain ZN, Wang SM, Mayes LC, Caramico LA, Hofstadter MB. Distress during the induction of anesthesia and postoperative behavioral outcomes. Anesth Analg 1999; 88: 1042–7. 154. Kain ZN, Mayes LC, O'Connor TZ, Cicchetti DV. Preoperative anxiety in children. Predictors and outcomes. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 1996; 150: 1238–45. 155. Stargatt R, Davidson AJ, Huang GH et al. A cohort study of the incidence and risk factors for negative behavior changes in children after general anesthesia. Paediatr Anaesth 2006; 16: 846–59. 156. Kotiniemi LH, Ryhanen PT, Moilanen IK. Behavioural changes in children following day-case surgery: a 4-week follow-up of 551 children. Anaesthesia 1997; 52: 970–6. 157. Lumley MA, Melamed BG, Abeles LA. Predicting children's presurgical anxiety and subsequent behavior changes. J Pediatr Psychol 1993; 18: 481–97. 158. Eiser C. Annotation communicating with sick and hospitalised children. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 1984; 25: 181–9. 159. Kain ZN, Mayes LC, Caramico LA. Social adaptibility and other personality characteristics as predictors for children's reactions to surgery. J Clin Anesth 2001; 12: 549–54. 160. Kagen VA, Reznick JS, Snidman N. Biological bases of childhood shyness. Science 1988; 240: 167–71. 161. Thompson ML. Information seeking, coping and anxiety in school-age children anticipating surgery. Child Health Care 1994; 23: 87–97. 162. Kain ZN, Mayes LC, Caramico LA. Preoperative preparation in children: a cross-sectional study. J Clin Anesth 1996; 8: 508–14. 163. Kain ZN, Caldwell-Andrews AA, Wang SM, Krivutza DM, Weinberg ME, Mayes LC et al. Parental intervention choices for children undergoing repeated surgeries. Anesth Analg 2003; 96: 970–5. 164. Chorney JM, Torrey C, Blount R, McLaren CE, Chen WP, Kain ZN. Healthcare provider and parent behavior and children's coping and distress at anesthesia induction. Anesthesiology 2009; 111: 1290–6. 165. Kain Z, Mayes L, Cicchetti D et al. Measurement tool for preoperative anxiety in children: the Yale preoperative anxiety scale. Child Neuropsych 1995; 1: 203–10. 166. Kain ZN, Mayes L, Cicchetti DV, Bagnall AL, Finley JD, Hofstadter MB. The Yale preoperative anxiety scale: how does it compare with a "gold standard'? Anesth Analg 1997; 85: 783–8. 167. Kain ZN, Mayes LC, Wang SM, Caramico LA, Hofstadter MB. Parental presence during induction of anesthesia versus sedative premedication – which intervention is more effective? Anesthesiology 1998; 89: 1147–56. 168. Cella DF, Perry SW. Reliability and concurrent validity of three visual-analogue mood scales. Psychol Rep 1986; 59: 827–33. 169. Kain ZN, Mayes LC, Caramico LA et al. Parental presence during induction of anesthesia. A randomized controlled trial. Anesthesiology 1996; 84: 1060–7. 170. Yip P, Middleton P, Cyna AM, Carlyle AV. Non-pharmacological interventions for assisting the induction of anaesthesia in children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2009; 3: CD006447. 171. O'Byrne K, Peterson L, Saldana L. Survey of pediatric hospitals' preparation programs: evidence of the impact of health psychology research. Health Psychol 1997; 16: 147–54. 172. Kain ZN, Caldwell-Andrews AA. Preoperative psychological preparation of the child for surgery: an update. Anesthesiol Clin North Am 2005; 23: 597–614. 173. Redd WH, Jacobsen PB, Die-Trill M, Dermatis H, McEvoy M, Holland JC. Cognitive-attentional distraction in the control of conditional nausea in pediatric cancer patients receiving chemotherapy. J Consult Clin Psychol 1987; 55: 391–5. 174. Gardner JE. Can the Mario Bros. help? Nintendo games as an adjunct in psychotherapy with children. Psychotherapy 1991; 28: 667–70. 175. Patel A, Schieble T, Davidson M et al. Distraction with a hand-held video game reduces pediatric preoperative anxiety. Paediatr Anaesth 2006; 16: 1019–27. 176. Kain ZN, Caldwell-Andrews AA, Krivutza DM et al. Interactive music therapy as a treatment for preoperative anxiety in children: a randomized controlled trial. Anesth Analg 2004; 98: 1260–6. 177. Watson A, Srinivas J, Daniels L, Visram A. Preparation of parents by teaching of distraction techniques does not reduce child anxiety at anaesthetic induction. Paediatr Anaesth 2002; 12: 823– 4. 178. Vagnoli L, Caprilli S, Robiglio A, Messeri A. Clown doctors as a treatment for preoperative anxiety in children: a randomized, prospective study. Pediatrics 2005; 116: E563–7. 179. Golan G, Tighe P, Dobija N, Perel A, Keidan I. Clowns for the prevention of preoperative anxiety in children: a randomized controlled trial. Paediatr Anaesth 2009; 19: 262–6. 180. Kain ZN, Mayes L, Wang SM, Caramico LA, Krivutza DM, Hofstadter MB. Parental presence and a sedative premedicant for children undergoing surgery: a hierarchical study. Anesthesiology 2000; 92: 939–46. 181. Ryder IG, Spargo PM. Parents in the anaesthetic room: a questionnaire survey of parents' reactions. Anaesthesia 1991; 46: 977–9. 182. Braude N, Ridley SA, Summer E. Parents and paediatric anaesthesia: a prospective survey of parental attitudes to their presence at induction. Ann R Coll Surg Engl 1990; 72: 41–4. 183. Kain ZN, Caldwell-Andrews AA, Mayes LC, Wang SM, Krivutza DM, LoDolce ME. Parental presence during induction of anesthesia – physiological effects on parents. Anesthesiology 2003; 98: 58–64. 184. Calipel S, Lucas-Polomeni MM, Wodey E, Ecoffey C. Premedication in children: hypnosis versus midazolam. Paediatr Anaesth 2005; 15: 275–81. 185. Wang SM, Maranets I, Weinberg ME, Caldwell-Andrews AA, Kain ZN. Parental auricular acupuncture as an adjunct for parental presence during induction of anesthesia. Anesthesiology 2004; 100: 1399–404. 186. Kain ZN, Wang S, Mayes LC, Krivutza DM, Teague BA. Sensory stimuli and anxiety in children undergoing surgery: a randomized, controlled trial. Anesth Analg 2001; 92: 897–903. 187. Kain ZN, Caramico LA, Mayes L, Genevro JL, Bornstein MH, Hofstadter MB. Preoperative preparation programs in children: a comparative examination. Anesth Analg 1998; 87: 1249–55. 188. Campbell C, Hosey M, McHugh S. Facilitating coping behaviour in children prior to dental general anesthesia: a randomized control trial. Paediatr Anaesth 2005; 15: 831–8. 189. Lerman J. Anxiolysis – by the parent or for the parent? Anesthesiology 2000; 92: 925–7. 190. Rosenbaum A, Kain ZN, Larsson P, Lönnqvist PA, Wolf AR. The place of premedication in pediatric practice. Paediatr Anaesth 2009; 19: 817–28. 191. Deshpande S, Platt MP, Aynsley-Green A. Patterns of the metabolic and endocrine stress response to surgery and medical illness in infancy and childhood. Crit Care Med 1993; 21: S359–61. 192. Kain ZN, Hofstadter MB, Mayes LC et al. Midazolam: effects on amnesia and anxiety in children. Anesthesiology 2000; 93: 676–84. 193. Watson AT, Visram A. Children's preoperative anxiety and postoperative behaviour. Paediatr Anaesth 2003; 13: 188–204. 194. Viitanen H, Annila P, Viitanen M, Yli-Hankala A. Midazolam premedication delays recovery from propofol-induced sevoflurane anesthesia in children 1–3 yr. Can J Anaesth 1999; 46: 766–71. 195. McGraw T, Kendrick A. Oral midazolam premedication and postoperative behaviour in children. Paediatr Anaesth 1998; 8: 117–21. 196. Kain ZN, Mayes LC, Wang SM, Hofstadter MB. Postoperative behavioral outcomes in children: effects of sedative premedication. Anesthesiology 1999; 90: 758–65. 197. Veselis RA, Reinsel RA, Feshchenko VA, Wronski M. The comparative amnestic effects of midazolam, propofol, thiopental, and fentanyl at equisedative concentrations. Anesthesiology 1997; 87: 749–64. 198. Lönnqvist PA, Habre W. Midazolam as premedication: is the emperor naked or just halfdressed? Paediatr Anaesth 2005; 15: 263–5. 199. Arndt J, Passannante A, Hirshman E. The effect of midazolam on implicit and explicit memory in category exemplar production and category cued recall. Memory 2004; 12: 158–73. 200. Kain ZN, Caldwell-Andrews AA, Mayes LC et al. Family-centered preparation for surgery improves perioperative outcomes in children: a randomized controlled trial. Anesthesiology 2007; 106: 65–74. 201. Wright KD, Stewart SH, Finley GA. When are parents helpful? A randomized clinical trial of the efficacy of parental presence for pediatric anesthesia. Can J Anaesth 2010; 57: 751–8. 202. Kogan A, Katz J, Efrat R, Eidelman LA. Premedication with midazolam in young children: a comparison of four routes of administration. Paediatr Anaesth 2002; 12: 685–9. 203. Malinovsky JM, Populaire C, Cozian A, Lepage JY, Lejus C, Pinaud M. Premedication with midazolam in children. Effect of intranasal, rectal and oral routes on plasma midazolam concentrations. Anaesthesia 1995; 50: 351–4. 204. Peña BM, Krauss B. Adverse events of procedural sedation and analgesia in a pediatric emergency department. Ann Emerg Med 1999; 34: 483–91. 205. Golparvar M, Saghaei M, Sajedi P, Razavi SS. Paradoxical reaction following intravenous midazolam premedication in pediatric patients – a randomized placebo controlled trial of ketamine for rapid tranquilization. Paediatr Anaesth 2004; 14: 924–30. 206. Wandel C, Bocker R, Böhrer H, Browne A, Rügheimer E, Martin E. Midazolam is metabolized by at least three different cytochrome P450 enzymes. Br J Anaesth 1994; 73: 658–61. 207. Lin JH, Lu AY. Interindividual variability in inhibition and induction of cytochrome P450 enzymes. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 2001; 41: 535–67. 208. Litman RS, Kottra JA, Berkowitz RJ, Ward DS. Upper airway obstruction during midazolam/nitrous oxide sedation in children with enlarged tonsils. Pediatr Dent 1998; 20: 318–20. 209. Von Ungern-Sternberg BS, Erb TO, Habre W, Sly PD, Hantos Z. The impact of oral premedication with midazolam on respiratory function in children. Anesth Analg 2009; 108: 1771–6. 210. Bergendahl H, Lönnqvist PA, Eksborg S. Clonidine: an alternative to benzodiazepines for premedication in children. Curr Opin Anaesthesiol 2005; 18: 608–13. 211. Nishina K, Mikawa K. Clonidine in paediatric anaesthesia. Curr Opin Anaesthesiol 2002; 15: 309–16. 212. Jatti K, Batra YK, Bhardwaj N, Malhotra S. Comparison of psychomotor functions and sedation following premedication with oral diazepam and clonidine in children. Int J Clin Pharmacol Ther 1998; 36: 336–9. 213. Almenrader N, Passariello M, Coccetti B, Haiberger R, Pietropaoli P. Premedication in children: a comparison of oral midazolam and oral clonidine. Paediatr Anaesth 2007; 17: 1143–9. 214. Constant I, Leport Y, Richard P, Moutard ML, Murat I. Agitation and changes of Bispectral Index and electroencephalographic-derived variables during sevoflurane induction in children: clonidine premedication reduces agitation compared with midazolam. Br J Anaesth 2004; 92: 504– 11. 215. Dahmani S, Brasher C, Stany I et al. Premedication with clonidine is superior to benzodiazepines. A meta analysis of published studies. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 2010; 54: 397– 402. 216. Potts AL, Larsson P, Eksborg S , Warman G, Lönnqvist PA, Anderson BJ. Clonidine disposition in children: a population analysis. Paediatr Anaesth 2007; 17: 924–33. 217. Larsson P, Nordlinder A, Bergendahl HT et al. Oral bioavailability of clonidine in children. Paediatr Anaesth 2011; 21: 335–40. 218. Khan ZP, Ferguson CN, Jones RM. Alpha-2 and imidazoline receptor agonists. Their pharmacology and therapeutic role. Anaesthesia 1999; 54: 146–65. 219. Perruchoud C, Chollet-Rivier M. Cardiac arrest during induction of anaesthesia in a child on long-term amphetamine therapy. Br J Anaesth 2008; 100: 421–2. 220. Alderson PJ, Lerman J. Oral premedication for paediatric ambulatory anaesthesia: a comparison of midazolam and ketamine. Can J Anaesth 1994; 41: 221–6. 221. Tanaka M SM, Saito A, Nishikawa T. Re-evaluation of rectal ketamine premedication in children: comparison with rectal midazolam. Anesthesiology 2000; 93: 1217–24. 222. Melendez E, Bachur R. Serious adverse events during procedural sedation with ketamine. Pediatr Emerg Care 2009; 25: 325–8. 223. Trabold B, Rzepecki A, Sauer K, Hobbhahn J. A comparison of two different doses of ketamine with midazolam and midazolam alone as oral preanaesthetic medication on recovery after sevoflurane anaesthesia in children. Paediatr Anaesth 2002; 12: 690–3. 224. Samarkandi A, Naguib M, Riad W et al. Melatonin vs. midazolam premedication in children: a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Eur J Anaesthesiol 2005; 22: 189–96. 225. Kain ZN, MacLaren JE, Herrmann L et al. Preoperative melatonin and its effects on induction and emergence in children undergoing anesthesia and surgery. Anesthesiology 2009; 111: 44–9. 226. Anderson BJ, Rees SG, Liley A, Stewart AW, Wardill MJ. Effect of preoperative paracetamol on gastric volumes and pH in children. Paediatr Anaesth 1999; 9: 203–7. 227. Davidson AJ, Huang GH, Czarnecki C et al. Awareness during anesthesia in children: a prospective cohort study. Anesth Analg 2005; 100: 653–61. 228. Lopez U, Habre W, Laurençon M, Haller G, van der Linden M, Iselin-Chaves IA. Intra-operative awareness in children: the value of an interview adapted to their cognitive abilities. Anaesthesia 2007; 62: 778–89. 229. Blussé van Oud-Alblas HJ, van Dijk M, Liu C, Tibboel D, Klein J, Weber F. Intraoperative awareness during paediatric anaesthesia. Br J Anaesth 2009; 102: 104–10. 230. Davidson AJ, Sheppard SJ, Engwerda AL et al. Detecting awareness in children by using an auditory intervention. Anesthesiology 2008; 109: 619–24. 231. Malviya S, Galinkin JL, Bannister CF et al. The incidence of intraoperative awareness in children: childhood awareness and recall evaluation. Anesth Analg 2009; 109: 1421–7. 232. Nagel T. What is the mind–body problem? In: Experimental and Theoretical Studies of Consciousness. Ciba Foundation Symposium 174. Published online 2007. 233. Searle J. How to study consciousness scientifically. In: Fuxe K, Grillner S, Hokfelt T, Olson L, Agnati L (eds) Towards An Understanding of Integrative Brain Function. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1993. 234. Hood B, Willatts P. Reaching in the dark to an object's remembered position: evidence of object permanence in 5-month-old infants. Br J Develop Psychol 1986; 4: 57–65. 235. DeCasper AJ, Fifer WP. Of human bonding: newborns prefer their mothers' voices. Science 1980; 208: 1174–6. 236. DeCasper A, Spence M. Prenatal maternal speech influences newborns perception of speech sounds. Infant Behav Dev 1986; 9: 133–50. 237. Taddio A, Shah V, Gilbert-MacLeod C, Katz J. Conditioning and hyperalgesia in newborns exposed to repeated heel lances. JAMA 2002; 288: 857–61. 238. Perris EE, Myers NA, Clifton RK. Long-term memory for a single infancy experience. Child Dev 1990; 61: 1796–807. 239. Brice DD, Hetherington RR, Utting JE. A simple study of awareness and dreaming during anaesthesia. Br J Anaesth 1970; 42: 535–42. 240. Lopez U, Habre W, Laurençon M et al. Does implicit memory during anaesthesia persist in children? Br J Anaesth 2009; 102: 379–84. 241. Russell IF, Wang M. Absence of memory for intra-operative information during surgery with total intravenous anaesthesia. Br J Anaesth 2001; 86: 196–202. 242. Byers GF, Muir JG. Detecting wakefulness in anaesthetised children. Can J Anaesth 1997; 44: 486–8. 243. Andrade J, Deeprose C, Barker I. Awareness and memory function during paediatric anaesthesia. Br J Anaesth 2008; 100: 389–96. 244. Punjasawadwong Y, Srisawasdi S, Werawatganon T, Taratarnkoolwatana K, Chau-in W, Vasinanukorn M. The Thai Anesthesia Incidents Study (THAI study) of ambulatory anesthesia: II. Anesthetic profiles and adverse events. J Med Assoc Thai 2008; 91: 188–95. 245. Liu WH, Thorp TA, Graham SG, Aitkenhead AR. Incidence of awareness with recall during general anaesthesia. Anaesthesia 1991; 46: 435–7. 246. Sandin RH, Enlund G, Samuelsson P, Lennmarken C. Awareness during anaesthesia: a prospective case study. Lancet 2000; 355: 707–11. 247. Sebel PS, Bowdle TA, Ghoneim MM et al. The incidence of awareness during anesthesia: a multicenter United States study. Anesth Analg 2004; 99: 833–9. 248. Errando CL, Sigl JC, Robles M et al. Awareness with recall during general anaesthesia: a prospective observational evaluation of 4001 patients. Br J Anaesth 2008; 101: 178–85. 249. Pollard RJ, Coyle JP, Gilbert RL, Beck JE. Intraoperative awareness in a regional medical system: a review of 3 years' data. Anesthesiology 2007; 106: 269–74. 250. Myles PS, Leslie K, McNeil J, Forbes A, Chan MT. Bispectral index monitoring to prevent awareness during anaesthesia: the B-Aware randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2004; 363: 1757– 63. 251. Ranta SO, Herranen P, Hynynen M. Patients' conscious recollections from cardiac anesthesia. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth 2002; 16: 426–30. 252. Dowd NP, Cheng DC, Karski JM, Wong DT, Munro JA, Sandler AN. Intraoperative awareness in fast-track cardiac anesthesia. Anesthesiology 1998; 89: 1068–73, discussion 9A. 253. Lyons G, Macdonald R. Awareness during caesarean section. Anaesthesia 1991; 46: 62–4. 254. Crawford JS. Awareness during operative obstetrics under general anaesthesia. Br J Anaesth 1971; 43: 179–82. 255. Bogetz MS, Katz JA. Recall of surgery for major trauma. Anesthesiology 1984; 61: 6–9. 256. Moore JK, Seymour AH. Awareness during bronchoscopy. Ann Roy Coll Surg Engl 1987; 69: 45–7. 257. Rungreungvanich M, Thienthong S, Charuluxananan S, Lekprasert V, Pulnitiporn A, Prakanrattana U. Predictors of intra-operative recall of awareness: Thai Anesthesia Incidents Study (THAI Study): a case-control study. J Med Assoc Thai 2007; 90: 1551–7. 258. Miller DR, Blew PG, Martineau RJ, Hull KA. Midazolam and awareness with recall during total intravenous anaesthesia. Can J Anaesth 1996; 43: 946–53. 259. Sandin R, Norström O. Awareness during total i.v. anaesthesia. Br J Anaesth 1993; 71: 782–7. 260. Nordström O, Engström AM, Persson S, Sandin R. Incidence of awareness in total i.v. anaesthesia based on propofol, alfentanil and neuromuscular blockade. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1997; 41: 978–84. 261. Moerman N, Bonke B, Oosting J. Awareness and recall during general anesthesia. Facts and feelings. Anesthesiology 1993; 79: 454–64. 262. Domino KB, Posner KL, Caplan RA et al. Awareness during anesthesia: a closed claims analysis. Anesthesiology 1999; 90: 1053–61. 263. Myles PS, Williams DL, Hendrata M, Anderson H, Weeks AM. Patient satisfaction after anaesthesia and surgery: results of a prospective survey of 10,811 patients. Br J Anaesth 2000; 84: 6–10. 264. Wennervirta J, Ranta SO, Hynynen M. Awareness and recall in outpatient anesthesia. Anesth Analg 2002; 95: 72–7. 265. Lennmarken C, Bildfors K, Enlund G et al. Victims of awareness. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 2002; 46: 229–31. 266. Ranta SO, Laurila R, Saario J, Ali-Melkkilä T, Hynynen M. Awareness with recall during general anesthesia: incidence and risk factors. Anesth Analg 1998; 86: 1084–9. 267. Samuelsson P, Brudin L, Sandin RH. Late psychological symptoms after awareness among consecutively included surgical patients. Anesthesiology 2007; 106: 26–32. 268. Schwender D, Kunze-Kronawitter H, Dietrich P, Klasing S, Forst H, Madler C. Conscious awareness during general anaesthesia: patients' perceptions, emotions, cognition and reactions. Br J Anaesth 1998; 80: 133–9. 269. Osterman JE, van der Kolk BA. Awareness during anesthesia and posttraumatic stress disorder. Gen Hosp Psychiatry 1998; 20: 274–81. 270. Engelhardt T, Petroz GC, McCheyne A, Bissonnette B. Awareness during pediatric anesthesia: what is the position of European pediatric anesthesiologists? Paediatr Anaesth 2007; 17: 1066–70. 271. Hobbs AJ, Bush GH, Downham DY. Peri-operative dreaming and awareness in children. Anaesthesia 1988; 43: 560–2. 272. McKie BD, Thorp EA. Awareness and dreaming during anaesthesia in a paediatric hospital. Anaesth Intens Care 1973; 1: 407–14. 273. O'Sullivan EP, Childs D, Bush. G H. Peri-operative dreaming in paediatric patients who receive suxamethonium. Anaesthesia 1988; 43: 104–6. 274. Rich JB, Yaster M, Brandt J. Anterograde and retrograde memory in children anesthetized with propofol. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 1999; 21: 535–46. 275. Kalff AC, Bonke B, Wolters G, Manger FW. Implicit memory for stimuli presented during inhalation anesthesia in children. Psychol Rep 1995; 77: 371–5. 276. Bonke B, van Dam ME, van Keff JW, Slijper FM. Implicit memory tested in children during inhalation anaesthesia. Anaesthesia 1992; 47: 747–9. 277. Standen PJ, Hain WR, Hosker KJ. Retention of auditory information presented during anaesthesia. A study of children who received light general anaesthesia. Anaesthesia 1987; 42: 604–8. 278. Blussé van Oud-Alblas H, Bösenberg A, Tibboel D. Awareness in children: another two cases. Paediatr Anaesth 2008; 18: 654–7. 279. Davis PJ. Goldilocks: the pediatric anesthesiologist's dilemma. Anesth Analg 2005; 100: 650– 2. 280. Lerman J, Sikich N, Kleinman S, Yentis S. The pharmacology of sevoflurane in infants and children. Anesthesiology 1994; 80: 814–24. 281. Brosnan RJ, Pypendop BH, Barter LS, Hawkins MG. Pharmacokinetics of inhaled anesthetics in green iguanas (Iguana iguana). Am J Vet Res 2006; 67: 1670–4. 282. Eger EI. Age, minimum alveolar anesthetic concentration, and minimum alveolar anesthetic concentration-awake. Anesth Analg 2001; 93: 947–53. 283. Inomata S, Kihara S, Miyabe M et al. The hypnotic and analgesic effects of oral clonidine during sevoflurane anesthesia in children: a dose-response study. Anesth Analg 2002; 94: 1479–83. 284. Mapleson WW. Effect of age on MAC in humans: a meta-analysis. Br J Anaesth 1996; 76: 179–85. 285. Kihara S, Inomata S, Yaguchi Y, Toyooka H, Baba Y, Kohda Y. The awakening concentration of sevoflurane in children. Anesth Analg 2000; 91: 305–8. 286. Katoh T, Suguro Y, Ikeda T, Kazama T, Ikeda K. Influence of age on awakening concentrations of sevoflurane and isoflurane. Anesth Analg 1993; 76: 348–52. 287. Davidson AJ, Huang GH, Rebmann CS, Ellery C. Performance of entropy and Bispectral Index as measures of anaesthesia effect in children of different ages. Br J Anaesth 2005; 95: 674–9. 288. Wodey E, Tirel O, Bansard JY et al. Impact of age on both BIS values and EEG bispectrum during anaesthesia with sevoflurane in children. Br J Anaesth 2005; 94: 810–20. 289. Tirel O, Wodey E, Harris R , Bansard JY, Ecoffey C, Senhadji L. Variation of bispectral index under TIVA with propofol in a paediatric population. Br J Anaesth 2008; 100: 82–7. 290. Tirel O, Wodey E, Harris R, Bansard JY, Ecoffey C, Senhadji L. The impact of age on bispectral index values and EEG bispectrum during anaesthesia with desflurane and halothane in children. Br J Anaesth 2006; 96: 480–5. 291. Phelan L, Stargatt R, Davidson AJ. Long-term posttraumatic effects of intraoperative awareness in children. Paediatr Anaesth 2009; 19: 1152–6. 292. Lopez U, Habre W, van der Linden M, Iselin-Chaves IA. Intra-operative awareness in children and post-traumatic stress disorder. Anaesthesia 2008; 63: 474–81. 293. Andrade J, Deeprose C. Unconscious memory formation during anaesthesia. Best Pract Res Clin Anaesthesiol 2007; 21: 358–401. 294. Deeprose C, Andrade J, Harrison D, Edwards N. Unconscious auditory priming during surgery with propofol and nitrous oxide anaesthesia: a replication. Br J Anaesth 2005; 94: 57–62. 295. Pham X, Smith KR, Sheppard SJ, Bradshaw C, Lo E, Davidson AJ. Implicit memory formation during routine anesthesia in children: a double-masked randomized controlled trial. Anesthesiology 2010; 112: 1097–104. 296. Anand KJ, Hickey PR. Halothane-morphine compared with high-dose sufentanil for anesthesia and postoperative analgesia in neonatal cardiac surgery. N Engl J Med 1992; 326: 1–9. 297. Anand KJ, Sippell WG, Aynsley-Green A. Randomised trial of fentanyl anaesthesia in preterm babies undergoing surgery: effects on the stress response. Lancet 1987; 1: 62–6. 298. Anand KJ, Sippell WG, Schofield NM, Aynsley-Green A. Does halothane anaesthesia decrease the metabolic and endocrine stress responses of newborn infants undergoing operation? BMJ (Clin Res Ed) 1988; 296: 668–72. 299. Cohen-Salmon D. Perioperative psychobehavioural changes in children. Ann Fr Anesth Reanim 2010; 29: 289–300. 300. Kain ZN, Caldwell-Andrews AA, Maranets I et al. Preoperative anxiety and emergence delirium and postoperative maladaptive behaviors. Anesth Analg 2004; 99: 1648–54. 301. Levy D. Psychic trauma of operations in children. Am J Dis Child 1945; 69: 7–25. 302. Vernon DT, Schulman JL, Foley JM. Changes in children's behavior after hospitalisation. Some dimensions of response and their correlates. Am J Dis Child 1966; 111: 581–93. 303. Kotiniemi LH, Ryhänen PT, Valanne J, Jokela R, Mustonen A, Poukkula E. Postoperative symptoms at home following day-case surgery in children: a multicentre survey of 551 children. Anaesthesia 1997; 52: 963–9. 304. Achenbach T, Rescorla L. Manual for ASEBA Preschool Forms and Profiles. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Research Center for Children, Youth and Families, 2000. 305. Achenbach T, Rescorla L. Manual for ASEBA School-Age Forms and Profiles. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Research Center for Children, Youth and Families, 2001. 306. Karling M, Hagglof B. Child behaviour after anaesthesia: association of socioeconomic factors and child behaviour checklist to the Post-Hospital Behaviour Questionnaire. Acta Paediatr 2007; 96: 418–23. 307. Cassel SE. The effect of brief puppet therapy upon the emotional responses of children undergoing cardiac catheterization. Unpublished thesis, 1963. Cited in: Vernon DT, Schulman JL, Foley JM. Changes in children's behavior after hospitalisation. Some dimensions of response and their correlates. Am J Dis Child 1966; 111: 581–93. 308. Steiner D, Norman G (eds). Health Measurement Scales: A Practical Guide to Their Development and Use, 3rd edn. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005. 309. Thompson RH, Vernon DT. Research on children's behavior after hospitalization: a review and synthesis. J Dev Behav Pediatr 1993; 14: 28–35. 310. Davenport HT, Werry JS. The effect of general anesthesia, surgery and hospitalization upon the behavior of children. Am J Orthopsychiatry 1970; 40: 806–24. 311. Payne KA, Coetzee AR, Mattheyse FJ, Heydenrych JJ. Behavioural changes in children following minor surgery – is premedication beneficial? Acta Anaesthesiol Belg 1992; 43: 173–9. 312. Padfield NL, Twohig MM, Fraser AC. Temazepam and trimeprazine compared with placebo as premedication in children. An investigation extended into the first 2 weeks at home. Br J Anaesth 1986; 58: 487–93. 313. Foesel T, Reisch HJ. Postoperative behavioural changes in children: comparison between halothane and sevoflurane. Paediatr Anaesth 2001; 11: 719–23. 314. Meyers EF, Muravchick S. Anesthesia induction technics in pediatric patients: a controlled study of behavioral consequences. Anesth Analg 1977; 56: 538–42. 315. Fahrenfort JJ, Jacobs EA, Miedema S , Schweizer AT. Signs of emotional disturbance three years after early hospitalization. J Pediatr Psychol 1996; 21: 353–66. 316. Douglas JW. Early hospital admissions and later disturbances of behaviour and learning. Dev Med Child Neurol 1975; 17: 456–80. 317. Quinton D, Rutter M. Early hospital admissions and later disturbances of behaviour: an attempted replication of Douglas' findings. Dev Med Child Neurol 1976; 18: 447–59. 318. Shannon FT, Fergusson DM, Dimond ME. Early hospital admissions and subsequent behaviour problems in 6 year olds. Arch Dis Child 1984; 59: 815–19. 319. Aono J, Mamiya K, Manabe M. Preoperative anxiety is associated with a high incidence of problematic behavior on emergence after halothane anesthesia in boys. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1999; 43: 542–4. 320. Kain ZN, Mayes LC, Caldwell-Andrews AA et al. Sleeping characteristics of children undergoing outpatient elective surgery. Anesthesiology 2002; 97: 1093–101. 321. Tuomilehto H, Kokki H, Ahonen R, Nuutinen J. Postoperative behavioral changes in children after adenoidectomy. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2002; 128: 1159–64. 322. McCluskey A, Meakin GH. Oral administration of midazolam as a premedicant for paediatric day-case anaesthesia. Anaesthesia 1994; 49: 782–5. 323. Kalkman CJ, Peelen L, Moons KG et al. Behavior and development in children and age at the time of first anesthetic exposure. Anesthesiology 2009; 110: 805–12. 324. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th edn. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association, 1994. 325. Davydow DS, Gifford JM, Desai SV, Needham DM, Bienvenu OJ. Posttraumatic stress disorder in general intensive care unit survivors: a systematic review. Gen Hosp Psychiatry 2008; 30: 421–34. 326. Colville G. The psychologic impact on children of admission to intensive care. Pediatr Clin North Am 2008; 55: 605–16, x. 327. Colville G, Kerry S, Pierce C. Children's factual and delusional memories of intensive care. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2008; 177: 976–82. 328. Rennick JE, Morin I, Kim D et al. Identifying children at high risk for psychological sequelae after pediatric intensive care unit hospitalization. Pediatr Crit Care Med 2004; 5: 358–63. 329. Rennick JE, Johnston CC, Dougherty G, Platt R, Ritchie JA. Children's psychological responses after critical illness and exposure to invasive technology. J Dev Behav Pediatr 2002; 23: 133–44. 330. Rees G, Gledhill J, Garralda ME, Nadel S. Psychiatric outcome following paediatric intensive care unit (PICU) admission: a cohort study. Intens Care Med 2004; 30: 1607–14. 331. Meiser-Stedman R, Yule W, Smith P, Glucksman E, Dalgleish T. Acute stress disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder in children and adolescents involved in assaults or motor vehicle accidents. Am J Psychiatry 2005; 162: 1381–3.