Ceramic technology between the Final Bronze Age
and the First Iron Age in NE Italy: The case of
Oppeano (Verona)
Massimo Saracinoa, Lara Maritanb and Claudio Mazzolib
a
Independent researcher, Verona, Italy
Department of Geosciences, University of Padova, Via G. Gradenigo 6, 35131 Padova, Italy
b
Abstract - The archaeometric study of pottery from the settlement of Oppeano (Verona, NE Italy)
indicates important changes in production technology taking place between the 10th and 5th
centuries BC. Ceramic production in the Final Bronze Age was characterised by the use of grog, as in
other coeval sites of the southern Adige and eastern Po plains. From the beginning of the Iron Age,
the number of recipes increased considerably, the use of grog gradually decreased, and cases of
importation are also attested. These changes were probably due to increasing socio-economic
complexity and the introduction of new production techniques.
1. Introduction
The production technology of pottery from the Final Bronze
and First Iron Ages in the Veneto region (NE Italy) has been
only partially investigated from an archaeometric viewpoint, as a result of studies carried out on both microregional areas, particularly in the southern Verona and
Rovigo areas (Jenkins et al. 1999; Jones et al. 2002;
Saracino 2006; Saracino et al. 2006), and isolated
settlements and specific ceramic classes, as in the case of
Concordia Sagittaria (Bertelle et al. 2001), Montebelluna
(Bianchin Citton et al. 2000), Montagnana (Crivellari et al.
2007), and Este (Maritan 2001) (Fig. 1a). These studies
indicate that the coarse ware (known as ‘impasto’) of this
period was locally produced with raw materials available
within the hydrographical basin on which the settlement
lies, and that the paste was often tempered with grog.
Chemical analyses also covered a set of ‘Italo-Mycenaean’
potsherds from several settlements in the region (Frattesina, Montagnana, Fabbrica dei Soci, Castello del Tartaro,
Fondo Paviani), dated to the Late Helladic III C, revealing
probable importation from both the Aegean and southern
Italy (Jones et al. 2002).
In contrast, during the First Iron Age, the temper was
almost completely substituted by rock inclusions collected
from coarse alluvial deposits or locally available outcrops,
such as the Euganean Hills in the case of Este (Maritan
2001). As for fine ware, only a few archaeometric studies
have been carried out in this area (Maritan 1998, 2004;
Maritan et al. 2005), investigating ceramica zonata,
Etruscan-Padan and grey pottery, respectively. The studies
report that these ceramic classes were locally produced,
and that short-distance exchanges took place between
regional centres, such as those of grey and Etruscan-Padan
pottery between Padua and Este. Recent archaeometric
studies carried out using LIBS and Raman spectroscopy on
ceramica zonata from several tombs of the Este necropolis
dated to the 6th–4th centuries BC have focused on the
provenance of sherds and the nature of the black and red
colouring (Lenzi 2008), partially confirming older analyses
(Biscontin et al. 1984).
In this framework, the settlement of Oppeano is an
interesting case, due to the presence of Final Bronze Age
to First Iron Age pottery (Guidi 2008), the archaeometric
analysis of which can supply important information
regarding production technology and possible exchanges
with other regional and extra-regional centres. The
settlement of Oppeano is located about 20 km south-east
of Verona, on an alluvial plateau 82 hectares across and
elliptic in shape, surrounded by alluvial Holocene plain (Fig.
1a). The terrace on which the settlement lies is south of the
spring-water line, on an ancient alluvial cone of the Adige
river, composed of sandy-, silty- and clayey-sized deposits
and pit lenses on the south-eastern side of the plateau (Fig.
1b). The terrace rises between 26 and 30 m above sea level,
about 2 to 5 m from the surrounding plain (Figs. 1c, d), and
is composed of the steps which are very common in the high
and middle Verona plain, and which are especially common
where river erosion was particularly incisive (Balista 2004;
Rioda 2008). The southern slope of the plateau, which
formed during the late Pleistocene (Sorbini et al. 1985) is of
lower altitude than the northern one, and was shaped by the
Cite this article as: Saracino M, Maritan L, Mazzoli C (2014). Ceramic technology between the Final Bronze Age and the
First Iron Age in NE Italy: The case of Oppeano (Verona). In M Martinón-Torres (Ed.), Craft and science: International
perspectives on archaeological ceramics. Doha, Qatar: Bloomsbury Qatar Foundation http://dx.doi.org/10.5339/
uclq.2014.cas.ch10
UCL Qatar Series in Archaeology and Cultural Heritage
Saracino et al.
Figure 1. a) Geographic location of Oppeano in the eastern Po plain; main rivers and palaeo-rivers also indicated;
b) geomorphological sketch of the alluvial plateau of Oppeano (Rioda 2008, modified); black outline: settlement area;
black box: excavation from which the analysed potsherds were collected; c-d) digital terrain model and contour line of the
Oppeano settlement, processed by ITABC – CNR Rome.
Adige during the early Holocene. A ‘defensive system’
(articulated in three main phases), originating in the First
Iron Age, has been identified next to the older slope (Balista
2004; Saracino 2004). The discovery of the settlement and
of several necropoles at Oppeano was documented since the
18th century, but it is only from the last decades of the 19th
century that the area has been archeologically investigated
(Ferrari 2008). Intensive archaeological research carried
out since 2000 by the University of Verona in collaboration
with the Veneto Archaeological State Antiquity Office, both
through surveys on the settlement and necropoles areas
and excavation campaigns in the north-western part of the
plateau (Fig. 1b), indicates that the area was continuously
settled from the Final Bronze Age to the First Iron Age,
from the 10th to the 5th centuries BC (Guidi and Salzani
2008). The distribution of pottery in the Final Bronze and
First Iron Ages, according to ‘leopard-spotted’ scattering,
corresponds to that detected in many other proto-urban
centres in central and northern Italy (Guidi 2008; Guidi
and Saracino 2008). During the First Iron Age (from the
6th century BC), the occupation expanded over most of
the plateau, assuming the dimensions of a ‘town’. The
importance and the socio-cultural vitality of the centre
during this period are also attested by the increasingly richer
funeral sets, the construction of a complex defensive system
along the southern slope, and the increasingly frequent
occurrence of Attic, black-glazed, and Etruscan-Padan
pottery, inscriptions borrowed from Northern Etruscan
models, and the higher concentration of manufacturing
(i.e., metallurgy and pottery).
The ceramic repertoire found during the excavation of
2003 (Guidi et al. 2008; Saracino and Sboarina 2010), the
subject of this research, is mainly composed of common
ware, showing various surface treatments and colours
(Saracino 2009), and of a few findings of ceramica zonata, a
wheel-made type of pottery produced in the ancient Veneto
region from the 6th century BC onwards and characterised
by alternating black and red coloured bands on the outer
surface. Rare fragments of fine ware, typical of various
Italian and Mediterranean cultures, were also found and
archaeologically interpreted as commercial products and/
or gifts for the aristocracy (Saracino 2009).
The present research is an archaeometric study of a set
of 37 potsherds found at the site, with the main aims of
determining the production technology and possible cases
of importation during the period between the Final Bronze
and Second Iron Ages, over a timespan of six centuries. This
study represents preliminary research on the Oppeano
pottery, which needs to be integrated with future work
on a larger sample to increase its representativeness. The
selection of samples presented in this paper was based on
the effective frequency and identification of archaeological
structures in this and several other parts of the settlement.
The older layers (Final Bronze Age) are less well preserved
and are disturbed by later structures (i.e., Early, and
mainly First Iron Age) (Morandini and Saracino 2008;
Saracino 2008). Fragments of common ware, represented by
open and closed shapes such as bowls, ollae, biconical pots
and dolia (Figs. 2 and 3), and of fine ware, represented by
Etruscan-Padan pottery, ceramica zonata, a small amphora
Craft and science: International perspectives on archaeological ceramics
92
Ceramic technology between the Final Bronze Age and the First Iron Age in NE Italy: The case of Oppeano (Verona)
2. Results and discussion
The petrographic analysis shows that most of the samples
are characterised by a homogeneous groundmass, optically
active, with a striated birefringent-fabric (b-fabric), sometimes with clay pellets, and few pores, mainly represented
by some vughs with a size ranging from dozens to hundreds
of microns and scarce millimetric channels. According to
the textural features and mineral-petrographic nature of
the inclusions, they were divided into seven main
petrographic groups (Fig. 4), a brief description of which
is provided below (Table 1).
Samples belonging to group 1 (alluvial sand-rich potsherds)
contain abundant inclusions of quartz, showing singlespace distribution, angular to sub-rounded shape, and
occurring as single crystals, polycrystalline aggregates of
metamorphic origin, and chert, associated with scarce
crystals of plagioclase, K-feldspar, biotite, muscovite,
epidote, a few opaque minerals, and occasionally fragments
of micritic limestone, rhyolite, crystals of rutile, tourmaline,
garnet, zircon, pyroxene, chlorite, and/or amphibole
(Fig. 4a). On the basis of the abundance and maximum
grain size, two subgroups were distinguished, with a 50:50
c:f (coarse:fine) ratio and inclusions up to approximately
two millimetres (samples: OP01, OP08, OP09, OP30), and
30:70–40:60 c:f ratio and inclusions up to approximately
one millimetre (samples: OP05, OP23, OP24, OP34, OP35,
OP37), respectively.
The samples of group 2 (alluvial sand- and calcite-rich
potsherds) (samples: OP07, OP16, OP18, OP20) are
characterised by abundant (40:60 c:f ratio) micron-sized,
Figure 2. Archaeological drawing of some of the studied
samples: fragments dating to the Early Iron Age (OP01,
OP02, OP05, OP09, OP10) and First Iron Age (OP12,
OP13, OP15, OP19, OP23, OP24).
with a horizontal grey-brownish band and a wavy line motif,
of uncertain origin, and a black-glazed kylix (Fig. 3) were
studied from the petrographic and mineralogical viewpoints.
A secondary deposition sherd of final Neolithic Age with
scratched/impressed decoration (end of the fourth millennium BC) was also studied in order to define provenance
and understand the possible oldest human occupation of the
site. In addition, four samples of clay, representing locally
available material, were collected immediately outside the
plateau, from the Holocene alluvial deposits of the Adige,
and subsequently analysed (Fig. 1b).
Petrographic analysis was carried out following the
terminology and descriptive scheme proposed by Whitbread (1986, 1989, 1995). The surfaces of the potsherds
were removed with a micro-drill in order to eliminate
possible surface contamination. Samples were then
reduced to powder in an agate mortar. The mineralogical
composition was obtained by X-ray powder diffraction
(XRD) on a PANalytical X'Pert PRO diffractometer in BraggBrentano geometry, equipped with a Cu X-ray tube (40 kV
and 30 mA, Cu-Ka radiation) and an X'Celerator detector,
in the 3–70° 2u range with 0.02° step size and counting 1 s
per step. The results were compared with archaeometric
data from other coeval sites referable to the same culture,
in order to define analogies in pottery production and
reconstruct possible trade routes.
93
Figure 3. Archaeological drawing of some of the studied
samples: fragments dating to the Second Iron Age (OP25)
and Final Bronze Age (OP27, OP28, OP29), small amphora
(OP30), black-glazed kylix (OP31), and ceramica zonata
(OP34, OP35, OP36).
Ed. Marcos Martinón-Torres
Saracino et al.
Figure 4. Microphotographs of representative samples from the petrographic groups identified: a) group 1 (sample OP34); b)
group 2 (sample OP16); c) group 3 (sample OP04); d) group 4 (sample OP13); e) group 5 (sample OP10); f) clay pellet in
sample OP12; g) group 6 (sample OP15); h) group 7 (sample OP12). Image width: 3.5 mm. Crossed polars: images a, b, c, g, h;
parallel polars: images d, e, f.
angular fragments of calcite (Fig. 4b), as well as the same
type of inclusions as group 1.
drastically in comparison with the previous groups
(Fig. 4c).
The quantity of calcite fragments increases in group 3
(calcite-rich potsherds) (samples: OP04, OP19, OP21,
OP22), and the alluvial sand component decreases
Potsherds belonging to groups 4 and 5 are characterised by
fragments of grog up to millimetric size (Figs. 4d, e). This
type of temper was distinguished from other possible
Craft and science: International perspectives on archaeological ceramics
94
95
OP02
OP03
OP04
OP05
OP07
OP08
OP09
OP10
OP11
OP12
OP13
OP14
OP15
OP16
OP17
OP18
OP19
OP20
OP21
OP22
5
5
3
1
2
1
1
5
5
4
4
4
6
2
4
2
3
2
3
3
Ovoi pot
End-conical pot
Ovoid pot
Ovoid pot
Ovoid dolium
Ovoid dolium
Ovoid dolium
Ovoid dolium
Ovoid dolium
Ovoid dolium
Ovoid dolium
Ovoid dolium
Bowl
End-conical
bowl
Decorated
sherd
Ovoid pot
Small ovoid
pot
Ovoid pot
End-conical
bowl
Ovoid pot
HOM A (ST)
HOM A (ST)
HOM IN
HOM A (ST)
HOM A (ST)
HOM A (ST)
HOM A (ST)
HOM A (ST)
HOM A (ST)
HOM A (ST)
HOM A (ST)
HOM A (ST)
HOM A (ST)
HOM A (ST)
HOM A (ST)
HOM A (ST)
HOM A (ST)
HOM A (ST)
HOM A (ST)
HOM A (ST)
HOM A (ST)
OP01
1
Ovoid pot
Homogenity (b-fabric)
Ceramic
Group Sample typology
Optical state
Shape
Pores
Inclusions
Shape
OR
OR
OR
OR
OR
OR
OR
IS
IS
OR
OR
IS
OR
OR
OR
IS
OR
OR
OR
OR
OR
*
*
*
*
*
*
10 500
*
20 2200 *
5 600
3 800
10 2500 *
10 2000 *
10 1800 *
3 1000
5 1600 *
10 1800 *
3 600
10 1000 *
10 1200 *
5 600
10 1000 *
10 1000 *
3 700
3 400
5 500
3 700
5 2000 *
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
* *
*
*
*
*
*
*
40:60 SS
40:60 SS
40:60 SS
40:60 SS
40:60 SS
30:70 SS
40:60 SS
40:60 SS
40:60 SS
40:60 SS
30:70 SS
40:60 SS
50:50 SS
40:60 SS
40:60 SS
50:50 CS
50:50 SS
50:50 CS
40:60 SS
30:70 SS
50:50 CS
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
U
B
U
B
B
B
U
* *
* *
1400 * *
1800 * *
1800 * *
2000 * *
2100 * *
1500 * *
2200 * *
2400 * *
2100 * *
2300 * *
2500 * *
1500 * *
3000 * *
2500 * *
3000 * *
1200 * *
700
2000 * *
2000 * *
2000 * *
900
*
*
*
OP22
OP21
* OP20
* OP19
* OP18
* OP17
* OP16
* OP15
* OP14
* OP13
* OP12
* OP11
OP10
* OP09
* OP08
OP07
* OP05
OP04
OP03
* OP02
* OP01
Cc
xxxxx
xxx
xxx
xx
xx
xx
xx
xxxx
xxxxx
þ
x
þ
þþ þ
þ
x
x
þ
þ
þþ þ þ
þ
þ
þþ
þ
þþ þ þ
þþ
þþ þþ þþ þ
þ
þ
x
x
þ
þþ þþ þþ þþ x
þ
þ
þ
þ
þ
þ
þ
þ
þ
þ
þ
þ
þþ þ þ
x
x
þ
þ
þ
þ
þ
þ þ þþ þ þ
þ
þ
x
þ þ þ þ xx
xx
þ
x
þ
þþ þ þ þ
þ
þ þ
þ
þ
þ
þ
þ
x
þ þ
þ
þ
þ
þ
x
þ
þ
þ
þ
þ
þ þ
þ
þþ x
x
þ
x
þ
þ þ
þþ þ
þ
þþ
þ
þ þ
þþ
xx
þ
þ
þ
þ
þ þ
þþ þ þ
x
þþ
þ
þ
þ
þ
þ
þ
þ
þ
þ
þ
x
xx
þþ
þþ
þþ
x
x
x
x
xxx
xx
x
xxx
x
xx
x
xxx
xx
þ
x
x
x
xx
x
xx
x
x
x
x
x
þ
x
x
xx
x
x
xx
þþ
x
þþ
þþ
þþ þþ
xxx x
x
þ
x
þþ
xxxx þ
xxx x
xxx
xx
xxx
þ
x
xx
xx
Qtz
Ms Rt Ep Zr Grt Px Am Tor Chl Chert met Lim Ry
Inclusion composition
þ
x
þþ
þ
þ
þþ x
þ
x
þ
þþ þ
x
þþ þþ x
þþ þ
þþ þ
þ
x
Bt
þ
Kfs Op
þþ þ
Pl
xxxx þ
xx
xxx xxx
xx
xx
xxx xxx
xx
xxx
xxx xxx
xx
xx
xx
xxx
xxx
xxx xx
xx
xxx
x
xxx
xxx
xxx xx
Max
Max
size
Preferred
c:f
c:f related Grain-size size
orientation % (mm) Ch PV Ve Vu ratio distribution distribution (mm) A SA SR R Sample Qzt
Groundmass
x
x
þþ
xx
þþ
x
xx
x
(Continued)
xxx
x
x
xxxx
xxx
x
Tr Met Grog
Table 1. Schematic petrographic description of samples. Groundmass: homogeneity: HOM = homogeneous; Optical state: A= active, IN = inactive; b-fabric: ST = striated; OR = oriented, IS = isotropic; Pores: shape: Ch = channels, PV = planar voids,
Ve=vesicles, Vu = vughs; Inclusions: c:f related distribution: CS = close-spaced, SS = single-spaced, DS = double-spaced, OP = open-spaced; grain-size distribution: B= bimodal, U= unimodal; shape: A= angular, SA = sub-angular, SR = sub-rounded,
R=rounded; composition: Qtz = quartz, Cc = calcite, Pl = plagioclase, Kfs =K-feldspar, Op = opaque minerals, Bt = biotite, Ms = muscovite, Rt = rutile, Ep = epidote, Zr = zircon, Grt = garnet, Px = pyroxene, Am = amphibole, Tor = tourmaline,
Chl=chlorite, Qtz met = metamorphic quartz, Lim = limestone, Ry = rhyolite, Tr = trachyte, Met = fragments of metamorphic rocks; abundance: xxxxx = predominant (>70%), xxxx = dominant (50–70%), xxx = frequent (30–50%), xx = common
(15–30%), x= few (5–15%),þþ = very few (2–5%), þ = rare (< 5%). Ceramic types also listed.
Ceramic technology between the Final Bronze Age and the First Iron Age in NE Italy: The case of Oppeano (Verona)
Ed. Marcos Martinón-Torres
OP25
OP26
OP27
OP28
OP29
OP30
OP31
OP32
OP34
OP35
OP36
OP37
1
5
5
5
5
7
7
3
1
1
6
1
OP23
OP24
1
1
Homogenity (b-fabric)
Craft and science: International perspectives on archaeological ceramics
HOM IN
HOM A (ST)
HOM A (ST)
HOM A (ST)
HOM A (ST)
HOM IN
Ceramica zonata HOM A (ST)
Ceramica zonata HOM A (ST)
Ceramica zonata HOM A (ST)
Ceramica zonata HOM A (ST)
Globular bowl
Black-glaze kylix HOM IN
Small amphora
Ovoi pot
Ovoi pot
Ovoi pot
Biconic pot
End-conical bowl HOM IN
End-conical bowl HOM A (ST)
Ceramica zonata HOM A (ST)
Ceramic
Group Sample typology
Optical state
Shape
Pores
Inclusions
Shape
- continued
OR
OR
OR
OR
IS
IS
OR
IS
IS
OR
OR
OR
OR
OR
*
*
20 1000 *
10 1100 *
15 1500 *
20 800
20 2000
1 200
5 600
10 1000 *
20 3000 *
10 1200 *
15 2000 *
15 1800 *
15 1800 *
10 600
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
30:70 DS
30:70 DS
30:70 DS
30:70 DS
30:70 DS
10:90 OS
30:70 DS
30:70 SS
30:70 DS
30:70 DS
40:60 SS
30:70 SS
40:60 SS
40:60 SS
B
U
U
U
U
U
B
B
B
B
U
U
U
B
* *
* *
* *
*
700
* *
1300 * *
1200 * *
1200 * *
1200 * *
50
2000 * *
1500 *
2000 * *
2000 *
1500 * *
600
500
900
*
*
*
*
*
*
* OP37
* OP36
* OP35
* OP34
OP32
OP31
OP30
* OP29
* OP28
* OP27
* OP26
* OP25
* OP24
* OP23
Cc
xx
xxx
xx
xx
xx
xxxx
xxxx
xxxx
xxxx
xxx
xxx
xxx
þ
þ
þ
þ
þ
þ
x
x
þ
þ
x
þ
þ
þþ
x
x
þþ
þ
þ
þ
þ
þþ x
þþ þ
þþ þ
þ
þ
þ
þ
þ
þþ þ þ
þþ
þþ
þþ
xx
þ
þ
þ þ
þ
þ þ xx
þþ x
þ
þþ x
þ
x
x
x
þ
þ
þþ þ
xx
þ
þ
þ
þþ þ þ
þ
x
þþ x
þ
þ
þ
Inclusion composition
þ
þ
þ
þ þ
þ þ
þ þ
þ
þ
þ
þ þ
þ
þ
þ
þ þ
þ
þ
þ
þ
þ
þ
xx
þþ
xx
xx
þþ
x
x
xx
xx
xx
xx
x
þþ
xx
xx
þ
þþ
x
xx
þ
xx
x
xx
xx
x
x
xx
þ
þþ xx
þþ x
xx
x
þþ x
Qtz
Ms Rt Ep Zr Grt Px Am Tor Chl Chert met Lim Ry
þþ þþ
þ
Bt
þ þ þþ x
x
Kfs Op
Pl
xxxx þ
xxx x
xxx xx
Max
Max
size
Preferred
c:f
c:f related Grain-size size
orientation % (mm) Ch PV Ve Vu ratio distribution distribution (mm) A SA SR R Sample Qzt
Groundmass
Table 1.
xx
þ
þþ
þþ
þ
þ
þþ
þþ
xx
xx
xxx
xx
Tr Met Grog
Saracino et al.
96
Ceramic technology between the Final Bronze Age and the First Iron Age in NE Italy: The case of Oppeano (Verona)
9
Age
8
Late lron Age
Frequency
7
6
First lron Age
5
Final Bronze Age
4
3
2
1
0
Frequency
b)
1
2
3
4
5
Petrographic group
24
22
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
6
7
Petrographic group
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Final Bronze
Age
First lron
Age
Late lron
Age
Figure 5. Frequency distribution of potsherds according to:
a) petrographic group; b) age.
argillaceous inclusions, in particular clay pellets, according
to microscopic features, as described by Whitbread (1986).
Examined in more detail, the grog is angular in shape, has
sharp boundaries, and in many cases shows preferred
orientation and neutral optical density, whereas the clay
pellets are rounded, with merging boundaries, concentric
internal structure, and equant shape (Fig. 4f). In group 4
(calcite and grog-bearing potsherds), recycled pottery is
associated with abundant fragments of calcite (samples:
OP12, OP13, OP14, OP17); in group 5 (grog-rich potsherds)
(OP02, OPO3, OP10, OP11, OP26, OP27, OP28, OP29), it
constitutes the only type of added temper, associated with
more or less abundant sand, representing the naturally
occurring coarser fraction of the clay materials. Only two
potsherd samples (OP15, OP36) also contain fine sandysized inclusions, with a mineral-petrographic composition
analogous to that of the previous groups, with sub-rounded
fragments of trachyte of some hundreds of microns (group 6,
trachyte-bearing potsherds) (Fig. 4g). Lastly, although
samples OP30 (oinochoe) and OP31 (kylix) contain different
quantities of inclusions, 20% and 10% respectively, they
were classified together in group 7 ( fine potsherds), as they
are both fine-grained and mainly composed of quartz and
subordinate opaque minerals, crystals of muscovite, biotite,
rutile and, in the case of OP30, also by rare plagioclase,
K-feldspar, zircon, garnet and chert (Fig. 4h).
The results of petrographic analysis were used to define the
main technological features of this pottery, as well as to
constrain its provenance. As such, the textural features of
the groundmass, and in particular the oriented b-fabric,
according to the results of experimental shaping studies by
Courty and Roux (1995), indicate that the pastes were
wheel-turned. Fragments of grog in the potsherds of two of
the groups (4 and 5) indicate that these ceramic pastes
97
were deliberately tempered by the potters. The samples of
groups 2 and 3, containing angular sand-sized crystals of
calcite, were also produced by mixing base clays with
crushed calcite. The potsherds of groups 1 and 6 show a
continuous grain-size distribution, and the sub-rounded
shape of the coarser fraction is not useful for identifying
features that would allow interpreting production recipes.
The possible addition of sand to the base clay is very hard
to detect and demonstrate. A particular case is represented
by fine potsherds (OP30, OP31), which were probably
produced with depurated clay materials.
As regards provenance, the presence in many of the
samples of groups 1, 2, and 5 of fragments of rhyolite,
referable to the Permian volcanites which constitute the
porphyric platform of the Trentino Alto Adige region, as
well as of metamorphic quartz and minerals related to
metamorphic rocks such as garnet, epidote, tourmaline,
and zircon, indicate that the clay materials were locally
collected from the Adige plain deposits (Jobstraibizer and
Mallesani 1973). The lack of any mineral-petrographic
marker in the samples of groups 3, 4 and 7 do not allow a
delimitation of the provenance of these ceramic objects,
although the presence of marble and sparitic limestone in
the coarser Adige deposits does not exclude the possibility
that the pottery of groups 3 and 4 was locally produced.
According to this petrographic evidence, only the samples
of group 6 were certainly imported from another
production centre. The presence of small fragments of
trachyte, a rock outcropping in the area of the Euganean
Hills – Padua (Piccoli et al. 1981), about 50 kilometres
downriver from Oppeano (Fig. 1) constrain these samples
a) 16
14
12
Frequency
10
10
8
6
4
2
0
<550°C
750-850°C
750-950°C
850-950°C
Temperature °C
b)
Frequency
a)
8
<550°C
7
750-850°C
6
750-950°C
850-950°C
5
4
3
2
1
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Petrogtaphic groups
Figure 6. Firing temperatures of potsherds, according to:
a) mineralogical assemblage; b) petrographic group.
Ed. Marcos Martinón-Torres
Saracino et al.
to this area. In particular, the ceramic paste of these
samples, which is very similar to the one described by
Maritan (1998) for the ceramica zonata production at Este,
indicates that these objects, a ceramica zonata (OP36) and
a dolium with internal and horizontal red and black stripes
(OP15), were imported from there. It is very interesting
that other objects, the stylistic features of which correspond
to those of the ceramica zonata (OP34, OP35), were
produced with a different recipe, petrographically corresponding to group 1 (alluvial sand-rich potsherds), which
may be considered as locally produced at Oppeano.
When examining the distribution of petrographic groups
over the three main chronological phases, Final Bronze
Age, First Iron Age, and Second Iron Age, it is very
interesting to note that, despite the poor statistics, the
number of production recipes drastically increased from the
Final Bronze Age to the First and Second Iron Ages (Fig. 5).
In particular, pottery using exclusively grog temper was
produced during the Final Bronze Age, whereas in the
Iron Age other types of temper were also used, and many
new recipes were introduced in the ceramic production
technology at Oppeano.
Petrographic groups are generally not correlated with
specific ceramic types, with the exception of ceramica
zonata, produced according to recipe 1, with the exception
of the imported object OP36, which belongs to group 6. This
suggests that, at least for the more abundant ceramic types,
little care was taken in the selection of the raw materials.
The mineralogical composition of the ceramic sherds is
closely related to the nature of the raw materials,
maximum firing temperature, and oxygen fugacity during
firing (Bimson 1969; Philpotts and Wilson 1994). Therefore, the presence or absence of specific minerals is
essential in defining the technological features of
production. The differing mineral assemblages identified
in the potsherds are listed below:
– quartz, plagioclase, K-feldspar, illite/muscovite,
chlorite, ± calcite, ± dolomite;
– quartz, plagioclase, K-feldspar, illite/muscovite,
calcite ± haematite;
– quartz, plagioclase, K-feldspar, illite/muscovite;
– quartz, plagioclase, K-feldspar, illite/muscovite,
pyroxene.
Quartz is generally the most abundant phase, followed
by plagioclase, K-feldspar, and illite/muscovite. Calcite,
dolomite, pyroxene, haematite and/or chlorite occur only
in some samples.
The XRD analysis of four samples of clay, collected from the
surroundings of the Adige plain site and representing locally
available raw materials, indicated that they are composed of
quartz, dolomite, calcite, illite/muscovite, chlorite, plagioclase and K-feldspar, in differing proportions.
The maximum firing temperatures of the Oppeano
potsherds were determined according to the mineralogical
association of samples and after comparisons with firing
experiments in both oxidising and reducing conditions, on
illitic-chloritic calcareous and non-calcareous clays similar
in terms of mineralogical composition to locally available
clay materials (Maritan 2003; Maritan et al. 2006; Nodari
et al. 2007) (Fig. 6). About one third of the samples were
fired at a temperature lower than 550°C, and half of them
between 750°C and 850°C (Fig. 6a). These temperatures
are determined by the occurrence of chlorite peaks in the
former (lower temperature) group and the lack of chlorite
and presence of calcite and haematite in the latter (high
temperature). Where calcite was lacking, the firing
temperature was identified on the basis of the absence of
chlorite peaks and the occurrence of those of illite/
muscovite. Only in a few cases did the maximum firing
temperature fall in the interval 850–950°C, associated with
the occurrence of both pyroxene and illite/muscovite.
When considering firing temperatures in relation to
petrographic groups, it is interesting to note that some
correspondences were found (Fig. 6b), despite the poor
statistical representativeness of most of the petrographic
groups. In particular, the samples of group 2 were fired at a
temperature below 550°C, while those of groups 4 and 6
were fired at temperatures between 750 and 850°C. Pottery
produced according to recipes 1, 3, 5 and 7 displays a
wide range of firing temperatures, from below 550°C to
950°C, probably as the result of poor control of the firing
technology. All this evidence suggests specific and
differentiated production technologies, in terms of both
production recipes and control of firing conditions.
3. Conclusions
The mineral-petrographic analysis of a selection of pottery
samples from Oppeano (Verona, NE Italy) has provided
very important data to define ceramic trade with other
coeval regional and distant centres, and to characterise the
production technology of this site. Although only preliminarily, the production recipes identified at Oppeano
indicate in one case a link between pottery paste and type,
as in the case of the ceramica zonata locally produced with
the recipe corresponding to group 1. In view of these data, a
wider investigation of the Oppeano pottery may provide
important indications pertaining to the interpretation of
functional pottery in relation to its paste type.
This technological change observed at Oppeano cannot be
easily associated with other regional and extra-regional
situations, due – in terms of the statistical diachronic and
synchronic representativeness of regional sites – to the
limited number of archaeometric studies on pottery from
this period (Final Bronze Age to Second Iron Age). During
the Italian Bronze Age, grog was commonly used in those
settlements located in sedimentary areas, because of the lack
of rock outcrops nearby (Jenkins et al. 1999; Jones et al.
2002; Levi and Sonnino 2003; Saracino 2006; Saracino et al.
2006). For this reason, it is possible that grog was considered
as an easily available raw material of good quality.
During the First Iron Age, grog was less frequently used, as it
possibly represented a temper related to the past, and from
the 6th-5th centuries BC onwards it was replaced by sand as
well as spathic calcite, probably collected from alluvial sand
and pebble deposits. During the same period, important
technological changes were introduced, such as wheel
throwing andthrough or up-draught kilns, both of which
have been archaeologically confirmed in Oppeano and other
settlements in Italy (Iaia 2009; Saracino 2009). The increase
in the number of recipes in the First and especially Second
Iron Age (Fig. 5b) is interpreted as due to the developments
related to socio-economic complexity and increased trade.
Craft and science: International perspectives on archaeological ceramics
98
Ceramic technology between the Final Bronze Age and the First Iron Age in NE Italy: The case of Oppeano (Verona)
During the Final Bronze and First Iron Ages, ceramic
production was carried out in household workshops, whereas
from the Second Iron Age onwards, the emergence of a
well-established aristocracy regulated settlement growth and
led to a population increase (Guidi 2008), both of which
gave rise to greater demand for products for local use or for
trade, as attested in other parts of Europe (Gosden 1985).
This demand could be satisfied by setting up more workshops
in special areas of the settlement (a kind of artisan district, as,
for example, in the settlements of Padua and Oppeano, or
in those at Trebbio-Sansepolcro, in central Italy – De Min et al.
2005; Guidi and Salzani 2008; Iaia and Moroni Lanfredini
2009), where several full-time potters could practise their
technological and cultural know-how. Nevertheless, we must
also take into account the factor of importation. Petrographic
and stylistic analyses indicate the importation of both dolia
and ceramica zonata pottery from the Euganean Hills area,
probably from Este, and of fine ware, a black-glazed kylix
and a fine small decorated amphora from unidentified
localities. The lack of any petrographic marker prevents us
from assigning a particular area/district of provenance for
these objects. Only a detailed analysis of the chemical
composition, which was not ascertained due to the small
quantity of material available, can provide information on
the origin of these materials. In particular, the kylix may
be related to a central Italic production or more probably to
the local Greek-Etruscan emporium of Adria (F. Wiel-Marin
personal communication). The small amphora seems to be
made with a naturally fine clay, without any depuration
process. From a typological point of view, it recalls similar
products found at the Ca’ Cima necropolis (Adria, NE Italy)
(S. Bonomi personal communication) but its provenance
cannot at present be confirmed.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank Prof. Alessandro Guidi
(University Roma Tre) and Dr. Luciano Salzani (Veneto
Archaeological State Antiquity Office) for their help and
contribution to this research. They are very grateful to
Gabriel Walton for revising the English text.
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