More on OS Security
Operating System: Recap
 each layer of code needs
measures in place to
provide appropriate
security services
 each layer is vulnerable to
attack from below if the
lower layers are not
secured appropriately
Security Layers
Measures
 The 2010 Australian Defense Signals Directorate (DSD)
lists the “Top 35 Mitigation Strategies”
 Over 70% of the targeted cyber intrusions investigated by
DSD in 2009 could have been prevented by fixing just four
things.
 The top four measures for prevention are:
 patch operating systems and applications using auto-update
 patch third-party applications
 restrict admin privileges to users who need them
 white-list approved applications
Operating System Security
 possible for a system to be compromised during the
installation process before it can install the latest patches
 building and deploying a system should be a planned
process designed to counter this threat
 process must:
 assess risks and plan the system deployment
 secure the underlying operating system and then the key
applications
 ensure any critical content is secured
 ensure appropriate network protection mechanisms are used
 ensure appropriate processes are used to maintain security
Process – regardless of OS!
the purpose of the system,
the type of information
stored, the applications and
services provided, and their
security requirements
who will administer the
system, and how they will
manage the system (via local
or remote access)
the categories of users of the
system, the privileges they
have, and the types of
information they can access
what access the system has
to information stored on
other hosts, such as file or
database servers, and how
this is managed
how the users are
authenticated
how access to the
information stored on the
system is managed
any additional security
measures required on the
system, including the use of
host firewalls, anti-virus or
other malware protection
mechanisms, and logging
“Normal” OS features
 User authentication
 Memory protection
 File and I/O access control
 General object access control
 Enforcement of sharing and fairness guarantees
 Etc.
Trusted OS extra features
 MAC (in addition to DAC)
 Object re-use protection
 An attacker should not be able to gather information from
resusable objects (such as disk memory)
 Complete mediation
 All objects access requests are checked each time (no
caching)
 Audit capabilities
 Intruder detection capabilities
How to achieve?
Standard tools are:
 Kernelized design
 Layered design
 Separation and isolation mechanisms
 Virtualization
Secure OS Kernels
 The fundamental idea in a secure kernel is to specify a core
set of OS functions.
 Small and carefully built
 Key idea: if the kernel is safe, things built on top of it will
be better off.
Kernelization pros and cons
 Advantages:
 Smaller amount of trusted code
 Easier to check every access
 Separates this piece from more complex portions of the
system
 Easier to maintain and modify security features
 Disadvantages:
 Introduces boundaries
 Temptation is to move as much as possible in (especially
since inside tends to be faster and cheaper to work with)
Major challenge in kernalization
 Need to decide which functions are in or out.
 What must be trusted in order to ensure security for the
rest of the system?
 Answer: depends on definition of “secure”
 Certain types of attacks are still possible against “secure”
systems
 Those attacks were just left off of the definition
Layered OS design
 This concept essentially generalized that of kernelization.
 Define an inner layer with high security.
 Each next layer builds on that, with lower security options.
 Outer layers use the inner ones through a strong interface.
 Example: Multics
 Pre-UNIX (and arguably more sophisticated and powerful)
 Key element was layered security model
 Still considered one of the most sophisticated secure OS
deisgns
Separation and Isolation
 Divide the system into components
 Define a secure interface for each, and allow
communication ONLY over interfaces
 Goal: Ensure nothing “bad” crosses the boundaries
 The OS can separate based on either user or process
boundaries, not just functionality
 Overall, extremely successful OS security approach.
Separation and Isolation:
Examples
 This is the core idea behind virtual memory processes and
how they are set up to run securely.
 Key elements of several more secure OS designs, such as
such as domain and type enforcement in SELinux.
 Domain and Type Enforcement (DTE) allows the system to
specify security domains for processes and security types
for objects.
 Restrict types available to specific domains, and only allow
access in specified ways
 Very successful in SELinux.
DTE Example
 Example: FTP daemon and buffer overflows
 Create FTP domain, and only FTP daemon and files in FTP
directory can be executed in this domain.
 These executables may not be written within this domain.
 So what happens for a buffer overflow?
 The buffer overflow might allow the attacker to try to
execute a program (say, /bin/sh).
 But the FTP daemon program was in the FTP domain
 /bin/sh is of a type not executable from this domain
 And so the buffer overflow can’t fork a shell successfully
Example of DTE in SELinux
 Files in /etc are mostly limited ot access by a few sysadmin
process types
 But /etc also contains /etc/aliases, which the mail program
must access
 (And everyone uses the mail program!)
 So rules are set up to allow the sendmail process’ type to
access /etc/aliases
 Sendmail process: type sendmail_t
 The /etc/aliases file gets type etc_aliases_t
SELinux sendmail rule
The following rules allows processes of sentmail_t
type to access files of etc_aliases_t type for read and
write – without regard for which user started the
process:
allow sendmail_t etc_aliases_t:file { read write };
Permissions must be sufficient to allow normal work
(read/write) but not too much to allow anyone to
read and write everything in there.
Unix solution
 In contrast, in most linux distributions, sendmail is just set
with setuid to a special user named “mail” (or something
similar).
 Then /etc/aliases can be owned by mail user.
 Same result: any user can run the sendmail program, and
sendmail can then access necessary data.
 So why is the SELinux approach better?
Unix versus SELinux approach
 Well, no need for fake users
 Central location for security-critical access control rules
 So no worries that a file somewhere may have incorrect
permissions set.
 The sendmail process can now run under the identity of
caller.
 In general, just a cleaner and nicer abstraction, although
need to set up rules correctly.
Virtualization
 A technology that provides an abstraction of the resources
used by some software which runs in a simulated
environment called a virtual machine (VM)
 Simply run all untrusted things in a virtual machine, which
can’t access critical security elements.
 There are some security pros and cons here, though. (More
in a few slides.)
 Can be used to run different OS applications, as well as
tools such as Java.
Virtualization Alternatives
application virtualization
full virtualization
allows
applications
written for one
environment to
execute on some
other operating
system
multiple full
operating system
instances execute
in parallel
virtual machine monitor (VMM)
hypervisor
coordinates access between each
of the guests and the actual
physical hardware resources
Native Virtualization Security Layers
Hosted Virtualization Security Layers
Virtualization Issues
 Guest OS isolation
 Must ensure that programs executing within a guest OS may
only access and use the resources allocated to it.
 Often, there are ways for the code to get out.
 Proper allocation of processes and resources.
 Put all related things in same VM?
 If not, must share data between them.
 Efficiency can be an issue.
Securing Virtualization Systems
• carefully plan the
security of the
virtualized system
organizations
using
virtualization
should:
• secure all elements of
a full virtualization
solution and maintain
their security
• ensure that the
hypervisor is properly
secured
• restrict and protect
administrator access
to the virtualization
solution
Hypervisor Security
 should be
 secured using a process similar to securing an operating system
 installed in an isolated environment
 configured so that it is updated automatically
 monitored for any signs of compromise
 accessed only by authorized administration
 may support both local and remote administration so must be
configured appropriately
 remote administration access should be considered and secured
in the design of any network firewall and IDS capability in use
 ideally administration traffic should use a separate network
with very limited access provided from outside the organization
Assurance and testing
 Testing: run a bunch of tests to see if it is secure.
 But what tests? When are we sure?
 Not really a strong proof of security, although it is the most
used.
 Formal verification: define goals formally and
mathematically
 Use formal methods to “prove” that system meetings goals.
 Often difficult to map real system to formal statements, and
difficult to prove anything for real systems.
Validation
 Define desired security in terms of:
 Features provided
 Architectural design
 Processes used in creation of system
 Evaluation methodology
 Then use a standardized procedure to demonstrate that
your system fits the profile of a level of security.
 Usually done against a pre-defined standard, which you
can then label your system as.
Validation: pros and cons
 The good:
 Allows easy comparisons of systems.
 Easy to have security “grades” for systems.
 Relatively open and fair process.
 The bad:
 Doesn’t actually really prove anything – only as good as the
standards set by the system.
 Can be expensive.
Secure OS standards
 We actually briefly discussed the standard OS
classifications briefly when talking about MAC.
 Common ones:
 U.S. Orange Book
 European ITSEC
 U.S. Combined Federal Criteria
 Common Criteria for IT Security Evaluation
The Orange Book
 First evaluation standard – developed by DoD in late 70’s.
 Now largely historical artifact, although terminology is still
around.
 Levels A,B,C, and D, in decreasing order of security, with
important subdivisions in each (1,2,3…)
 Required formal certification from government for
anything above the D level.
Orange Book classes
 C2 example: Windows NT
 DAC at fairly low granularity
 Access auditing
 Password authentication and protection of reused objects
 B1 example: PitBull variant of Solaris
 Includes MAC using Bell-La Padula model
 This is the highest classification that a standard OS with
extra security added can get – much harder to go higher.
Orange Book classes (cont)
 The B3 class (example: Trusted Mach)
 Requires more careful security design as well as some level of




verification
No formal verification, but needs a “convincing argument”
Extensive testing required
In general, the OS is designed with security in mind from the
beginning.
(In general, less user friendly and much more expensive.)
Failure of the Orange Book
 Expensive
 Didn’t meet industry needs – was focused more on military
requirements, and so was fairly inflexible.
 Certified products were not marketed quickly.
 Wasn’t clear that certification meant much.
 Windows NT was definitely not secure.
 Review was tied to the government.
The Common Criteria
 Current international standard (for many aspects of
computer security, not just OS)
 Basics (with many TLAs):
 Evaluation Assurance Levels (EAL)
 Common Evaluation Methodology (CEM)
 Essentially gives a very detailed methodology for
specifying:
 Security goals
 Operating environment
 Desired mechanisms
 Measures of success
The CC in practice
 You need a secure system, and so specify requirements
using the CC methodology.
 Then you can look for products that meet these
requirements or else develop one that does.
 Generally, independent labs then verify that the product
meets the desired profile.
 In practice, a few are commonly used, and you generally
select one that meets your needs from the list.
CC status
 Wide usage in many countries
 Including agreements in many places to honor other
countries’ certifications
 Many products already certified
 Remaining issues:
 Still expensive and slow
 Unclear how meaningful certifications are
 Example: Windows 2000 was certified EAL4+ (in a range of 1-
7), but needed a ton of patches and was not regarded as
“secure”.
TPM and Trusted Computing
 Goal: incorporate specialized hardware to improve
security.
 Built into personal computers, but these components are
tamperproof and special purpose.
 Three basic functionalities:
 Secure storage and use of keys
 Secure software attestations
 Secured data
TPM Key Storage
 All crypto keys are stored in a tamperproof area
 TPM hardware generates RSA keys pairs using “true”
random number generators.
 Each TPM chip has a permanent key, and others are
generated as needed.
 The permanent key can be used to sign and prove where
things come from.
 Actually a private/public key pair, and the private part never
leaves the dedicated hardware.
TMP and Crypto
 Hardware includes encryption and decryption functions,
so that keys never leave the hardware.
 Data comes in and is encrypted or decrypted locally.
 Users have only limited interaction with crypto
components in order to minimize issues.
TPM Attestations
 Essentially provides proof that a particular piece of
software is funning on the machine.
 Really a signature on a hash of the software.
 Why?
 Can guarantee certain level of software or OS is running.
 One way to enforce security standards on both sides of a
communication, or to require certain levels and standards.
 Example: boot loader can require a check that the OS is
the one it intends to load, and quit if not.
 Prevents attacker from loading a corrupted kernel.
TPM and Data Security
 Can encrypt data with keys on one machine.
 Data can then ONLY be decrypted on that machine.
 Can even be sealed so that one a particular application can
access it.
 This technology is the basis for many secure encryption
devices. (Very popular on TV these days.)
TPM controversies
 “Who’s computer is this, anyway?”
 Many critics worry about DRM issues
 Companies are using it to block competition in some
settings
 Practicality issues: patching, releases, etc.