Unit 1: The Exam! 21/05/2014
• The exam is 1 hour 20 minutes long and you
Cognitive
will have to answer three types of question.
• This unit is 40% of your total AS psychology
and the paper is marked out of 60.
• There are three compulsory sections.
There are three parts to the Unit 1 exam:
Experiments
Social
Surveys
1.Multiple choice questions – read them carefully and make sure you read
how many responses you have to give.
[15 minutes]
2.Short answer / stimulus response. Answer fully.
[40 minutes]
3.Extended writing question.
[25 minutes]
Study or Theory?
Whats the difference
Study or Theory?
STUDY (APRC / GRAVE)
THEORY
A study is any exercise where data is
A theory is an explanation for a
collected and analysed.
psychological phenomenon.
This involves a researcher conducting an
Following a theory researchers will conduct
experiment of any type. It will have an
studies in an attempt to support the theory
aim, procedure, results and conclusion.
and provide evidence for it.
Studies
Theories
Craik and Tulvin (1975), Godden & Baddely
MSM, LoP, Trace Decay, Cue-Dependency,
(1975),
Interference theory
What does APRC stand for?
APRC: Describing a STUDY
Aim – what did the psychologist want to do?
Procedure – what did they do? Who did they do it to?
Experimental design? Sampling method? Apparatus?
Results – what did they find (raw data)?
Conclusions – so what? What does it mean?
What does GRAVE stand for?
GRAVE: Evaluating a STUDY
• Generalisability - can the findings be applied to the general population?
Think about the sample, methods used & confounding variables.
• Reliability - can the procedure be replicated and are the findings
consistent?
• Applications - do the findings have practical value? Think: So what?
• Validity - did the study test what it set out to? Can the findings be applied
to everyday life (ecological validity)? Population validity (sampling).
• Ethics - with reference to the BPS ethical guidelines, how ethical was the
study?
Edexcel Psychology: Unit 1
Cognitive Psychology
ASSUMPTION1: Information Processing
• Definition: The processing by which information is
received by the senses, analysed and responded to.
This flow of information is described using the terms
input, process and output.
• Example:
Information Processing
INPUT
• INFO.
RECEIVED
BY SENSES
PROCESSING
OUTPUT
• INFO.
ANALYSED
• INFO.
RESPONDED
TO
Decision
making
Memory
ASSUMPTION 2: Computer Analogy
The human mind works in a similar
way to a computer in terms of
information processing.
– INPUTS information from the senses;
– PROCESSES information in the form
of thinking, memory and language;
– OUTPUTS information in the form of
decision making, speech and action.
ASSUMPTON 3: Active
Humans actively organise and manipulate
information from the environment. Cognitive or
mental processes mediate between stimulus and
response.
Active processing refers to sets of procedures in
which a learner acts on instructional inputs to
generate, re-organise, self-explain, or otherwise
go beyond the encoding of material.
Evaluation of Cognitive Approach
Strengths
• Adopts scientific
procedures to develop and
test theories.
• Uses experimental
techniques.
• Models simplify cognitive
processes.
• Allows us to understand
mental process that are not
directly observable.
Weaknesses
• Tends to ignore biology and
genetic influence also
ignores individual
differences.
• Provides a mechanistic
view of human behaviour.
• Can such a scientific
approach really tell us
about how we think, feel
and behave? (Humanistic
psychology).
Cognitive Psychology
• Define memory, forgetting,
storage & retrieval.
• Describe & Evaluate Trace
Decay Theory
• Describe & Evaluate MSM
Theory
Studies in Detail
• Godden & Baddeley (1975)
• Craik & Tulvin (1975)
• Describe & Evaluate LoP
theory
• Describe & Evaluate Cue
Dependent Theory
Key Issue
• Eye witness testimony
• Cognitive Interview
Memory & Forgetting… The same thing?
Memory:
Forgetting:
• The retention and recall
• Not been able to
of previous experience.
• Encoding -> Storage ->
Retrieval
remember a fact or event
because the memory
trace is unavailable or
inaccessible.
Failure at any of these
3 stages can lead to
forgetting.
ENCODING
The process of
changing sensory input
into a memory trace so
that it can be stored.
Memory involves
three main
Processes:
All 3 processes
depend upon one
another; they are
interdependent.
STORAGE
RETRIEVAL
The process of maintaining
a record of the memory
trace so that it can be
retrieved in the future.
The process of
accessing and
recovering stored
information so that it
can be recalled.
Multi-Store Model [Theory]
AO2 Evaluation of Atkinson & Shiffrin’s
Multi-store Model of Memory
 Lot’s of evidence supporting STM and LTM being separate stores.
Problems with concept of STM:
- FK shows that semantic as well as acoustic encoding is used.
- First-in-first out displacement loss disproved.
- Not a single system- working memory with separate
subsystems for visual & spatial and verbal information.
X HM learning new skills shows LTM not a single system- separate episodic,
semantic and procedural stores.
X Rehearsal does not completely explain transfer to LTM.
X Primacy-recency effect equally well explained by LOP framework.
X Supporting studies use artificial tasks therefore evidence low in ecological
validity.
X ‘Capacity’ not well defined; not clear whether it refers to storage or
processing.
X An additional criticism of the MSM is that it does not take into account the
strategies (other than maintenance rehearsal) used to remember
information.
Craik and Lockhart’s Levels of
Processing (1972) [Theory]
• Proposed as an alternative to the PROCESSES involved
in storing a memory suggested by the MSM.
• They suggested that the likelihood of remembering a
piece of information depends on how we process it.
• In this way, memory is a by-product of the information
processing that occurs when attending to information.
Levels of Processing
1. Structural
Shallow
What does the word look like?
Is the word in capital letters?
2. Phonetic
What does the word sound like?
Does the word rhyme with …?
3. Semantic
What does the word mean?
Does the word fit in this sentence?
Deep
Evaluation of LoP (AO2)
 Evidence to support- Craik & Tulving (65% sem, 37% p, 17% st). This is incidental
rather than intentional learning so ecologically valid.
 Brain scanning studies show more activity when semantic processing occurring.
 Improvement on MSM
- Elaborative rather than maintenance rehearsal;
- Shows complexity of encoding process.
 Useful everyday applications- education.
X Confounding variables to depth; time, effort, distinctiveness.
X Semantic does not always = better
X Circular argument
X Focuses on processes not stores
Craik and Tulvin (1975) [Study]
Aim
The aim was to test whether words that were processed for their meaning
would be better remembered than words that were processed for
information about their appearance or sound.
Procedure
Laboratory experiment- the IV (depth of processing) was manipulated and
there was a high level or experimental control in an artificial situation.
Repeated Measures- all participants participated in all three conditions:
Structural processing, phonetic processing & semantic processing.
Craik and Tulvin (1975) [Study]
Participants did not initially know that it was a memory test and thought
they just had to answer questions on a list of words. In reality, different types
of questions were making participants use different levels of processing
structural, phonetic and semantic.
Words were presented to participants; each word was followed by a question
which required a yes or no answer. Finally, participants were presented with
the incidental memory test- incidental as they didn’t originally know they
were going to do it.
Recall was measured through a recognition task where participants had to
choose as many of the original words as they could amongst several others.
Is the word in capital letters?
Chair
Does this word rhyme with GREEN?
BEAN
Does the word fit this sentence? ‘The soldier picked up his _____.’
rifle
Is this word in lower-case letters?
FLOWER
Does the word fit this sentence? ‘The woman _________ on the train.’
slept
Does the word rhyme with MEND?
pool
Is the word in capital letters?
MEANING
Does the word fit this sentence? ‘Yesterday we saw a _______.’
fence
Does the word rhyme with HOUSE?
MOUSE
Does the word fit into this sentence? ‘There are _______ growing in my garden.’
DOORS
Is the word in lower-case letters?
spend
Does the word rhyme with TABLE?
GENERAL
Is this word in capital letters?
article
Does this word fit this sentence? ‘The _____ should not be more than 1000
words.’
castle
Does this word rhyme with STOOL?
POND
Craik and Tulvin (1975) [Study]
Results
65% semantic 36% phonetic and 17% of structurally processed words
were recalled.
Conclusion
This study shows that depth of processing affects how well words are
remembered. Semantic processing, that is thinking about the
meaning of the words, leads to their being remembered best.
Craik and Tulvin (1975) A02
G: Problems as participants were all students (good memories?) and the task was
artificial and not representative of things we remember.
R: As it is a lab experiment we can replicate the experiment easily to check the
reliability of the study.
A: Shows that students (or anyone wanting to remember something) must attach
meaning to it. When things are processed semantically we remember them better.
Could develop revision techniques.
V: Artificial task so might not be measuring how we actually remember words.
However, Pps. didn’t know it was a test of memory that removes some confounding
variables. Poor population validity – all students.
E: Participants could have been embarrassed if they didn’t do well.
Trace Decay Theory
Trace-decay theory can be used to explain forgetting from
either STM or LTM. It proposes that forgetting occurs due to
information not being available so there is nothing to retrieve
thus recall cannot occur.
This theory is based on the idea that information creates a
neurological (physical) trace in the brain when it is encoded
which disappears over time. Without the rehearsal of
information, engrams decay over time thus the memory
disappears and forgetting occurs.
Forgetting therefore occurs from STM due to the stores limited
duration if maintenance rehearsal does not take place. Equally,
despite having a potential life-time duration, it has been
suggested that if knowledge and skills in LTM are not practiced,
then the engram will decay causing a structural change in LTM
thus forgetting.
AO2 STRENGHTS Trace Decay Theory
 A study conducted by Peterson and Peterson (1959) supports
the idea of trace decay in STM. They found that the number of
trigrams recalled by participants decreased as the length of
distraction task increased. This finding suggests that forgetting
in STM is due to trace decay since the distraction task
prevented rehearsal- the function of which is to replenish the
trace before it decays completely.
 This theory is also supported by physiological evidence
showing that memories do create a physical trace in the brain.
 The theory also has mundane realism as it is consistent with
the forgetting demonstrated by people with Alzheimer’s
disease who seem to lose memories (a physical process) rather
than be unable to retrieve them. This suggests that trace decay
may be a valid theory of forgetting.
AO2 LIMITATIONS Trace Decay Theory
Furthermore, Jenkins & Dallenbach (1924) tested whether
time between encoding and recall led to forgetting. They
found that participants who remained awake between
learning and recall forgot more than those who slept. This
suggests that interference rather than trace-decay causes
forgetting as the lower recall in the awake group must have
resulted from events between learning and recall interfering
with the engram.
X Another limitation of trace-decay theory is that it cannot
explain why some long-term memory engram’s, such as
flashbulb memories, seem to be resistant to decay.
X Trace decay also has difficulty explaining why material which
cannot be remembered at one time can be remembered at a
future time, even though no additional presentations have
been made. If the trace has decayed it should never be
available.
X
Cue Dependent Theory
Tulvin (1975)
Tulvin claims two events are necessary for recall:
a)
A memory trace
b)
Retrieval cue
Context (environmental) Cues
These are cues in the environment which aid our ability to retrieve a memory at a
later date. Forgetting occurs as the situation or context is different from that at
encoding.
State Cues
This is the emotional state you are in at time of encoding. Forgetting occurs as the
person’s state or mood is different from that at encoding.
Cue Dependent Theory (AO2)
Tulvin (1975)
Strengths
•The theory accounts for forgetting in different tasks. There are many supporting
studies.
•The idea is testable because the retrieval environment can be replicated.
•The Cognitive Interview is based on the theory that by providing cues to a person it
will aid their ability to recall information.
Weaknesses
•The tasks used in the supporting studies are artificial so the results may lack
ecological validity and validity.
•It may only account for some forms of forgetting.
•Only applies to forgetting from the LTM.
Mind map what you know
about Godden & Baddley
(1975) [Study]
Godden & Baddley (1975) [Study]
Aim: The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of environmental encoding
cues on the ability to recall.
Procedure: The 18 participants were randomly divided into four groups and all
participants took part in all 4 conditions (repeated measured design). Participants
were to learn list comprised of 36 unrelated words, 2-3 syllables long then recall in
either the same or different context. During the experiment each participant
undertook one condition per day: dry-dry; dry-wet; wet-wet; wet-dry.
Conclusion: Godden and Baddeley concluded that their results do support the claims
of cue-dependency theory.
Godden & Baddley (1975) AO2
G: Only trained SCUBA divers were used therefore it may not apply to all
people. The environment and the tasks were artificial – learning does not
usually take place like that.
R: The experiment can be replicated to test the reliability of the results. We
could replicate in more ecologically valid situations (classroom vs. exam hall).
A: We can apply the findings to students learning in one environment and
recalling in another. Better to sit exams in a classroom not hall.
V: Word list was artificial – not real learning. Poor population validity.
E: No ethical issues were broken. Not an issue.
Task:
Complete a detailed
key study S&W for
Godden & Baddeley
15mins
Godden and Baddeley
(1975)
•
Godden and Baddeley carried out a field experiment using a small
number of participants. The participants were all scientists and this
could have meant they were a biased sample because they may have
tried hard for the researchers or they may have guessed the
hypothesis of the study and changed their behaviour so the results
would be biased and unreliable. A field experiment has controls but the
problem is it is hard to control the settings, indeed the diving situations
did vary because the study had to move with the divers and also had to
wait until the time and conditions for diving were suitable. This means
that controls were difficult which again could affect reliability. On the
other hand, the findings are probably valid because there were real
divers on real dives so the situation regarding the context (which was
the independent variable) was natural. The study was ethical because
the divers were aware of what they had to do and were trained divers
so were not under pressure with regard to the task. Being scientists
they would not be too worried about experimental procedures such as
writing underwater, although this may have meant the study lacked
reliability as already explained-it would however indicate that they
would not have cheated about what they had learnt but would have been
honest.
Key Issue: EWT & Memory
Reconstructive Hypothesis
Loftus & Palmer
What really
happened
Factors after the
event
Our perception of the event.
How does it help us explain the issues with eyewitness
testimony?
Multi-Store Model
Atkinson & Shiffrin
Information is only passed into the STM from the SM is we
attend to it. If we are not attending to an event in the
environment information about it will decay from the SM and
will not be processed further (encoded) – no memory.
Levels of Processing
Craik and Lockheart
We remember things well when they have been deeply
processed, that is anaylsyed for meaning rather than for
structural or phonetic information. Most questions following an
event usually refer to apperance (structural processing).
Cue-dependency
Tulvin
Research has shown that both our internal state and our
surroundings when we store a new memory serve as memory
cues. If these cues are not present at recall we will be unable to
recall the event accurately.
Reconstructive
Memory
Loftus & Palmer
The active process of reconstruction takes place as we retrieve
memories. We tend to include post-event information when
reconstruct memories. Therefore, memories can be easily
distorted by using leading questions.
The Cognitive Interview
Fisher & Geiselman (1992)
The four main techniques that the CIT uses to aid retrieval are:
•
46%
Increase !
Recreating the context: It is well established that memory is context dependent
and so asking a witness to think about how they were feeling just before and
during the event to be recalled, perhaps evoking the sounds and smells relating to
the event, should facilitate retrieval.
•
Focused concentration: Persuading the witness to concentrate very hard on the
task.
•
Multiple retrieval attempts: Encouraging a witness who feels they have recalled
everything about an event to have another attempt can unlock previously unrecovered detail.
•
Varied retrieval: Witnesses will often recall events in chronological order but if
they are asked to recall details in a different order, or from a different perspective,
this may trigger additional information.
Edexcel Psychology: Unit 1
How Science Works:
EXPERIMENTS
Experiments
Three types of experiments:
• Laboratory experiments
– Highly controlled / artificial
• Field experiments
– Controlled variables in a natural environment
• Quasi (natural) experiments
– We have no control over the independent variable – it’s
‘naturally’ occurring (eg Gender)
Experiments
Independent
Variable
(IV)
Dependent
Variable
(DV)
Confounding Variable: a variable that effects the DV
Extraneous Variable: a variable that could affect the DV but
has been controlled for so it doesn’t.
Experiments
Extraneous Variables
Participant Variables
• Independent Measures = Individual Differences
Situational Variables
• Any feature of the experiment that could influence a
participants behaviour
Single Blind – Double Blind – Control Groups
Experiments
• Independent Measures
• Participants are only in
one condition.
Condition 1
Repeated Measures
• The same participants
repeat the two
conditions
Condition 2
Condition 1
Condition 2
Counter balancing – alter order of Pp’s
Experiments
Matched Pairs – make two groups of participants as
similar as possible.
Condition 1
Condition 2
Male
21
IQ = 105
Female
25
IQ = 115
Male
21
IQ = 105
Female
25
IQ = 115
Strength
Weakness
Independent
Measures
No Order Effects
Fewer Demand
Characteristics
Individual
Differences
Repeated
Measures
No Individual
Differences
Order Effects
Matched
Pairs
Controls for
Individual
Differences
(counter balancing)
Can be difficult and
costly.
Evaluation of Experimental Designs.
Experiments – Hypotheses
How are we
measuring
memory?
What’s better or
worse? Higher /
Lower? More / Less?
Participants memory will be much worse when
there is a distraction in the room than when
What is the distraction?
there is no distraction.
How are we
manipulating it?
Operationalising your hypothesis
How have you manipulated your IV?
How have you measured your DV?
Experiments – Hypotheses
Participants memory will be much worse when
there is a distraction in the room than when
there is no distraction.
Participants will remember significantly more
words from a list of 20 presented for 60
seconds when they are in a room with no
distractions than participants who are in a
room where rock music is playing in the
background.
Alternate
Participants who [do something] will be
significantly [faster/better/quicker etc] at
[something] than participants who [do
something else].
Null
Experiments – Hypotheses
There will be no significant difference
between participants who [do something] and
those who [do something else]. Any difference
will be down to chance.
Experiments – Hypotheses
1Tailed
Participants who [do something] will be
significantly [faster/better/quicker etc] at
[something] than participants who [do
something else].
2Tailed
There will be a significant difference between
participants who [do something] and those
who [do something else].
Key Terms - Experiments
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Laboratory Experiment
Field Experiment
Quasi Experiment
Independent Variable
Dependent Variable
Confounding Variable
Extraneous Variable
Replication
Cause and Effect
Ecological Validity
Alternate Hypothesis
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Demand Characteristics
Ethics
Independent Measures
Repeated Measures
Matched-Pairs
Individual Differences
Order Effects
Counter Balancing
Operationalising
Hypothesis
• Null Hypothesis
Data Analysis
Descriptive Statistics
• Summary of data to illustrate patterns and relationships –
BUT can’t infer conclusions
Inferential Statistics
• Statistical tests that allow us to make conclusions in
relation to our hypothesis.
eg. Mann-Whitney or Spearman’s Rho.
Data Analysis
Nominal - measure of central tendency: mode
Data in categories (finished, fell, started)
Ordinal - measure of central tendency: median
Data which are ranked or in order (1st 2nd 3rd)
Interval - measure of central tendency: mean
Precise and measured using units of equal intervals
(1m54s, 1m59s, 2m03s)
Measure of dispersion = range (Highest – Lowest)
Measure of central tendency = average
Strength
Makes use of all the
values in a data set.
Weakness
Mean
Not good for ordinal or
nominal data.
Can be distorted by
extreme values.
Median
Unaffected by
Not good for nominal
extreme values.
data.
Ignores extreme
outliers.
Mode Can be used with any Isn’t useful for small
data type.
data sets.
Ethics
• Consent
• Advice
• Withdrawal
• Colleagues
• Debriefing
• Competency
• Deception
• Confidentiality
• Observation
• Protection