现代哲学先声：十六世纪
哲学、科学与宗教
Li Zhongwei
Zhongweili.net
主要内容
 1. 伊拉斯谟与路德论罪恶、恩典与自由
 2. 怀疑主义：圣神领域的和俗世领域的
 3. 布鲁诺的科学与信仰
 4. 伽利略的科学与信仰
 5. 培根对科学的分类与求知方法
伊拉斯谟与路德论罪恶、恩典
与自由
Free Will is but a grand illusion.
罪恶、恩典、自由意志
 罪恶：人生而处于罪恶之中，继承了亚当与夏娃的原罪。
 恩典(Grace)：上帝宽恕、拯救人类。
 自由意志：出于自身的意愿来行为。道德行为对错标准蕴含自由
意志；个人品性评判与自由意志有关
 Surez对自由意志的定义：‘That agent is called free which in
the presence of all necessary conditions for action can act
and refrain from action or can do one thing while being able
to do its opposite.’
 路德与伊拉斯谟共同的出发点：圣经中似乎很多地方认为人类的
行为是自由的，而在很多地方认为人类的命运是上帝决定的。
路德的决定论(Determinism)
 “原罪之后的自由意志仅仅是空洞的名称”“自由意志实
际上只是虚构且无任何实在性，因为人对于计划是作恶还
是行善无能为力。”
 路德的理由：自由意志与上帝的前定知识与意志是不兼容
的.上帝“根据其不可改变、永恒和不可错误的意志而预见、
设定目标与行事。这种雷电使得自由意志磨平并破碎。”
所有事情都是必然地发生的，人的意志也不例外。
 面对经典中的矛盾之处，路德认为，我们应该否认自由意
志，将所有事情归于上帝。
伊拉斯谟和摩尔论自由
 如果是出于必然性，而非自由意志决定人类的好与坏的行为，那
么圣经中有谈到劝诫、承诺、戒律、责备和诅咒都会失去意义。
 摩尔反路德：One of their sect was served in a good turn in
Almayne, which when he had robbed a man and was brought
before the judges, he would not deny the deed, but said it
was his destiny to do it, and therefore they might not blame
him; they answered him, after his own doctrines, that if it
were his destiny to steal and that therefore they must hold
him excused, then it was also their destiny to hang him, and
therefore he must as well hold them excused again. (More
1931: 196)
 路德反对该论断的假设：如果没有自由意志，那么所有事情皆值
得原谅。他认为，上帝正义地惩罚那些无法不犯罪的人。
思考问题
 1. 伊拉斯谟关于自由意志存在的理由是什么？
 2. 路德为什么认为自由意志仅仅是幻象？
怀疑主义：神圣领域与世
俗领域的
All that is certain is that nothing is certain.
怀疑主义(Scepticism)
 对于任何命题p，或者事情x，有如下态度：
 我承认p或者x；Affirmation
 我否认p或者x；Denial
 我不知道是否是p或者x；I do not know.
 我不关心p或者x；I do not care=I do not know and I do not want
to know.
 我怀疑p或者x。I do not know，加上一种“追问”或者“除非有进
一步证据，不予支持或否认”的care态度。
 怀疑主义的功能: 理智的成熟从怀疑主义开始；健康的怀疑主义使
人宽容、不偏执。
神圣领域的怀疑主义
 1553年发现血液循环的Servetus在日内瓦被烧死，因为他
否认三位一体和耶稣的神圣性。
 Castellio写了一篇《论异端是否应遭迫害》，宣扬宽容主
义，其主要论据来自圣经本身。
 此后写就《怀疑的艺术》，其论证更加具有认识论特征——
因为除了上帝存在是无疑的，对于如何解释经典，存在不
同的声音，因此而迫害任何一人，是非常危险的。他因此
而成为宽容主义的先驱。
蒙田(Montainge)与怀疑主义
 蒙田论人类需保持某种谦逊，不要以为自己是唯一理性的
生物。
 A.是我们在和猫打发时间还是猫在用我们打发时间？B.逻
辑狗；C.吞拿鱼，燕子等生物那里的现象。D.蚂蚁的葬礼；
E.大象崇拜太阳
 ——>动物那里的有与人类同样的“思维”过程与逻辑推理。
 ——>动物那里甚至也有宗教现象等。
 ---同时，在欧洲大陆人类生活在战争的恐惧与各种堕落
中时，美洲大陆的人类却保持某种简单性与高贵性。
蒙田对怀疑主义与宗教信仰的调和
 蒙田认为人类的理智是有限的，无法通过理性证明上帝存在，然
而对上帝存在这个正统信念却确信不疑。如何调和理性与信仰的
张力？
 1.宗教理由：St Paul in First Corinthians: ‘Hath not God made
foolish the wisdom of this world? For after that in the wisdom
of God the world by wisdom knew not God, it pleased God by
the foolishness of preaching to save them that believe.’
 2.认识伦理由：调和怀疑主义与信仰：Fedism唯信主义。It is
not by reasoning or understanding that we have received our
religion, it is by authority and command from above. The
weakness of our judgement is more help than its strength,
and our blindness is more help than our clear sight. It is
through ignorance, not through knowledge that we become
wise with divine wisdom.
思考问题
 1. 什么是怀疑主义？
 2. Castellio如何根据圣经和认识论本身来论证应实行宗教
宽容？
 3. 蒙田认为人类理性能认识上帝吗？如果不能，就不能够
相信上帝存在吗？
布鲁诺的形而上学学说
布鲁诺与“观念的影子”
 《观念的影子》：新柏拉图主义的形而上学体系与回忆观
念的技巧。
 人类观念最低，而上帝观念最高；
 关于回忆观念的技巧：上帝的神圣观念无法为人所理解，
但却表现在自然之中，因为自然乃是上帝所造普遍后果
 ——>故而为回忆、学习神圣观念，我们需要在星座学中获
得知识。
布鲁诺的形而上学
 泛神论(Pantheism): 现象界是世界精神活化自然并使其成
为单个有机体的后果。单个的太阳系起源与消灭，都仅仅
是唯一一个“世界精神”的有限的、暂时的部分。世界是
无限的，但与上帝之无限不同。世界的部分不是无限的，
然而上帝完全在整个世界中但又完全在其任何一个部分中。
 多重宇宙说：太阳也非宇宙中心，还存在其它太阳系。地
球地位也并不特殊，宇宙中或许还存在其它行星拥有有智
慧的生物。
 理性原子说：我们的宇宙也不是唯一的，或许还存在多重
宇宙。
布鲁诺的最终命运
 1592年被宗教裁判所逮捕，
在长达八年审判后，于1580
年被作为异端烧死于火刑柱
上。
 布鲁诺的学说并非出于科学
观察，而主要来自形而上学
玄思。其被烧死于火刑柱也
并非完全由于其科学观点，
而是他宣扬基督教认为的异
端邪说。
思考问题
 1. 结合《观念的影子》一书，试述布鲁诺的新柏拉图主义
倾向。
 2.简述布鲁诺的泛神论、多重宇宙学说和理性原子理论。
 3.根据Kenny的观点，布鲁诺为什么受到宗教裁判所迫害？
伽利略的科学与宗教信仰
伽利略的科学发现
 伽利略对亚里士多德物理学的批评，出发点是经验观察而非新柏
拉图主义体系。
 著名成就包括：A. 自由落体速度；B.钟摆原理；C.惯性；
 在天文学领域成就，及其对其日心说等理论的支持
 发现木星四个卫星——>成为反对关于日行说驳斥的一个理由；
 发现月亮上的山脉和太阳黑子——>对亚里士多德学说的后果；
 发现金星跟月亮一样，有“相”的变化——>这只能通过金星围绕
太阳转得到解释
伽利略与主教们的争论
 伽利略与St.Robert Bellarmine关于日心说的争：
 Bellarmine认为伽利略的学说与圣经相悖，且他并没有充
分证据表明其学说；伽利略认为圣经中关于太阳运动的说
法只是比喻性的，意图并非在教导天文学。
 伽利略与Urban VIII：
 1632年，Urban VIII授权让伽利略写成《关于两个主要世界
体系的对话》，但条件是要公平地呈现两种学说。然而结
果令Urban不满，结果1633年伽利略受到审判。被判终身
软禁。其被迫害使得科学研究受到阻碍。笛卡尔也为之胆
寒。
思考问题
 结合蒙田、布鲁诺与伽利略的思想与经历，试论宗教信仰
与理性的关系。它们在何种程度上是兼容或者相互矛盾的？
培根论科学体系与科学方法
培根对知识的划分
 知识：诗艺、历史、哲学(认知：想象、回忆、理性)
 诗艺：诗歌、虚构作品
 历史：人类社会史、自然史(History of nature in course,
of nature erring or varying, and of nature altered or
wrought(History of nature mechanical)
 哲学：Divine Philosophy(Natural Theology), Natural
Philosophy, Human Philosophy.
培根论自然哲学(Natural
Philosophy)
 自然哲学： Speculative(思辨型)；Operative(应用型)
 思辨型自然哲学：根据亚里士多德的四因来区分。
 Physics处理作用因和质料因。
 Metaphysics，处理终极因和形式因。
 (船行驶的风帆是其动力因，属于物理学，而引导帆船的罗
盘，在形而上学领域内)
培根与亚里士多德不同之处
 (1)培根认为对目的因之探讨是空洞的；
 (2)对形式的研究并非对亚里士多德式的“实体形式”的研
究。而是对其“构成方式”(composition)中的简单形式的
研究。
培根思辨形而上学对形式的研究
 The task of metaphysics is to investigate the simpler forms which
correspond to individual letters:
 To enquire the forms of sense, of voluntary motion, of vegetation,
of colours, of gravity and levity, of density, of tensity, of heat and
of cold, and all other natures and qualities, which like an
alphabet are not many, and which the essences (upheld by matter)
of all creatures do now consist. (AL, 196)
 培根的形式，导致表面现象的“形式”。
培根论人性哲学Human Philosophy
 第一部分，研究Man Segregate,单个的人：解剖学、生理
学和心理学
 关于人体的科学包括药学、体育学等；
 第二部分，研究Man Congregate,结合的人：Social
Sciences.
培根论心灵的官能与想象力
 关于灵魂的研究属于神学，但也有关于灵魂的人类科学。
 分为两个部分：一部分研究人类理智，其功能是判断，另
外一部分属于意志或者欲望，其功能是行为和执行。
 The Imagination is an agent or nuncius（messenger） in both
provinces, both the judicial and the ministerial. For sense
sendeth over to Imagination before Reason have judged: and
Reason sendeth over to Imagination before the Decree can be
acted; for Imagination ever precedeth Voluntary Motion:
saving that this Janus of Imagination hath differing faces; for
the face towards Reason hath the print of Truth, but the face
towards Action hath the print of Good. (AL, 217)
《新工具》与科学发现的方法(逻辑学)
 逻辑缺乏科学发现的理论，逻辑的任务在于为科学提供
“指南针”，做出科学发现。
 Like as the West-Indies had never been discovered if the
use of the mariner’s needle had not been first
discovered, though the one be vast regions and the
other a small motion; so it cannot be found strange if
sciences be no further discovered if the art itself of
invention and discovery hath been passed over. (AL,
219).
 科学发现的方法：消极的与积极的(Negative and Positive)
科学发现入门(消极的方法)：排除四种偏见
 部落偶像：The tendency to judge things by superficial appearances,
the tendency to go along with popular belief, and the tendency to
interpret nature anthropomorphically.
 洞 穴 偶 像 ： Features of individual temperaments which hamper
objectivity: some people, for instance, are too conservative, others
too ready to seize on novelties.
 市场偶像：Snares lurking in the language we use, which contains
meaningless, ambiguous, and ill-designed words.
 剧场偶像：False systems of philosophy which are no more than stage
plays, whether ‘sophistical’, like Aristotle’s, or ‘empirical’, like
contemporary alchemists, or ‘superstitious’ like the Neoplatonists
who confuse philosophy with theology.
归纳：正面的科学发现方法
 Suppose that we have some phenomenon X and we wish to discover
its true form or explanation. We must Wrst make a table of
presences—that is to say, we list the items A, B, C, D . . . which are
present when X is present. Then we make a table of absences,
listing items E, F, G, H . . . which are present when X is absent.
Thirdly, we make a table of degrees, recording that J, K, L, M. . .
are present to a greater degree when X is present to a greater
degree, and present to a lesser degree when X is present to a lesser
degree.
 培根通过该原则发现热的“形式”.热的形式是某种形式的运动。
 培根与证伪主义：自然规律不能被彻底地确证，但能被彻底地证伪。
 培根与现代科学实践：依赖科学共同体合作
培根与所罗门之殿
 a ship’s crew in the South Seas land on an island containing a
remarkable institution known as Salomon’s House. This turns
out to be a research establishment, where scientists work
together to embody Bacon’s utilitarian ideal of science as the
extension of men’s power over nature for the betterment of
the human race. Their projects include plans for telephones,
submarines, and aeroplanes. The president of the institute
described its purpose thus:
 The End of our Foundation is the knowledge of Causes, and
secret motions of things, and the enlarging of the bound of
Human Empire, to the effecting of all things possible. (B, 480)
思考问题
 1. 培根如何对人类知识进行分类，分别对应什么人类认知
功能？
 2. 培根如何进一步划分哲学？
3.培根如何看待人类的想象力？
 4. 培根的形而上学所研究的“形式”是什么？与亚里士多
德有何不同？
 5. 追寻知识的消极方法是什么，或者需要避免的四种偶像
是什么？
 6. 追寻知识的积极方法是什么？
Some Quotes
Bruno
 The Divine Light is always in man, presenting itself to the senses
and to the comprehension, but man rejects it.
 The universe comprises all being in a totality; for nothing that
exists is outside or beyond infinite being, as the latter has no
outside or beyond.
 Of the eternal corporeal substance (which is not producible ex
nihilo, nor reducible ad nihilum, but rarefiable, condensable,
formable, arrangeable, and "fashionable") the composition is
dissolved, the complexion is changed, the figure is modified, the
being is altered, the fortune is varied, only the elements
remaining what they are in substance, that same principle
persevering which was always the one material principle, which is
the true substance of things, eternal, ingenerable and
incorruptible.
伽利略
 for in the sciences the authority of thousands of opinions is
not worth as much as one tiny spark of reason in an
individual man. Besides, the modern observations deprive
all former writers of any authority, since if they had seen
what we see, they would have judged as we judge.
 Philosophy is written in that great book which ever lies
before our eyes — I mean the universe — but we cannot
understand it if we do not first learn the language and
grasp the symbols, in which it is written. This book is
written in the mathematical language, and the symbols are
triangles, circles and other geometrical figures, without
whose help it is impossible to comprehend a single word of it;
without which one wanders in vain through a dark labyrinth.
Bacon
 The monuments of wit survive the monuments of power.
 The two ways of contemplation are not unlike the two ways
of action commonly spoken of by the ancients: the one plain
and smooth in the beginning, and in the end impassable; the
other rough and troublesome in the entrance, but after a
while fair and even. So it is in contemplation: If a man will
begin with certainties, he shall end in doubts; but if he will
be content to begin with doubts he shall end in
certainties.(1605,The Advancement of Learning)
 I bequeath my soul to God... My body to be buried obscurely.
For my name and memory, I leave it to men's charitable
speeches, and to foreign nations, and the next age.---His Will
下次课程阅读内容
 Descartes
 Hobbes
 Cambridge Platonists
 Locke
 Pascal