Ethics—The Basics
by John Mizzoni
CHAPTER FOUR:
SOCIAL CONTRACT ETHICS
Ethics—The Basics
SOCIAL CONTRACT ETHICS
Is it wrong to choose NOT to
donate blood, which saves the
lives of others?
Ethics—The Basics
SOCIAL CONTRACT ETHICS
• According to Social Contract Ethics
(SCE), the “laws of nature”
demonstrate that human beings are
naturally selfish.
• There seem to be major differences
between SCE and Natural Law Ethics
(NLE).
WHAT IS SOCIAL CONTRACT ETHICS?
Ethics—The Basics
SOCIAL CONTRACT ETHICS
• According to SCE, ethics is about
participating in a “social contract.”
• Social Contract Theory was
developed by Thomas Hobbes in the
17th century.
WHO IS THOMAS HOBBES?
Ethics—The Basics
SOCIAL CONTRACT ETHICS
• Thomas Hobbes was the foremost British
philosopher of the 17th century
• Hobbes proposed a view of morality
that was completely divorced from
religion
(1588-1679)
– There was a desire to appear separate and distinct from the
Roman Catholic Church (Cf. “Of Religion” Ch. 12 of Hobbes’
Leviathan).
– Hobbes was influenced by modern scientific thought
WHO IS THOMAS HOBBES?
Ethics—The Basics
SOCIAL CONTRACT ETHICS
THE SOCIAL CONTRACT TRADITION
• Thomas Hobbes was the “founder” of the
Social Contract tradition in ethics, although
Socratic roots can be found in Plato (Crito, The
Republic)
• 17th c. Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) British
• 18th c. John Locke (1632-1704) British, influenced USA
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) Swiss
• 20th c. John Rawls (1921-2002) American
Jan Narveson (1936- ) American
Ethics—The Basics
SOCIAL CONTRACT ETHICS
NATURAL LAW ETHICS
SOCIAL CONTRACT ETHICS
Human reason is important
Human reason is important
Concern with human inclinations Concern with human inclinations
Life (self-preservation) +
reproduction are natural
inclinations
Life (self-preservation) +
reproduction are natural
inclinations
God is the creator of our
rationally ordered universe
God is not considered; the
universe is what it is
Human nature is naturally good Human nature is nasty + brutish
Based on Aristotle
Rejects Aristotle
Sociability + knowledge are
natural inclinations
Sociability + knowledge are ideal
inclinations
Ethics—The Basics
SOCIAL CONTRACT ETHICS
Aquinas and Hobbes agreed on the importance of the
human inclination to self-preservation, BUT they had
very different views of human nature.
• Hobbes thought that Aquinas and Aristotle idealize
human nature, rather than confront reality
• Hobbes thought that human lives are “solitary, poor,
nasty, brutish, and short” (Leviathan, Ch. 13)
• Hobbes thought that, in reality, all human nature IS
motivated only by self-interest
• This theory, that all human nature is motivated only by
self-interest, is called PSYCHOLOGICAL EGOISM
Ethics—The Basics
SOCIAL CONTRACT ETHICS
ETHICAL EGOISM, unlike PSYCHOLOGICAL
EGOISM, states that human beings SHOULD BE
motivated by the PRINCIPLE OF SELF-INTEREST.
• It states this is how people OUGHT to behave
• It states that this is the RIGHT way to behave
THE PRINCIPLE OF SELF-INTEREST (ETHICAL EGOISM):
One ought always to do whatever is in one’s
best interest.
• ETHICAL EGOISM IS NOT PSYCHOLOGICAL EGOISM
• ETHICAL EGOISM IS NOT EGOTISM
Ethics—The Basics
SOCIAL CONTRACT ETHICS
Aquinas and Hobbes ALSO had very different views
about the natural world.
• Hobbes’ thinking was based on the science of his day, and
unlike that of Aquinas or Aristotle, it found NO PLAN or
DESIGN for the natural world, and NO UNIQUE PURPOSE
for man as a part of that world.
• Hobbes tried to explain the development of human
institutions by imagining human life without them—in a
“state of nature,” where people are free to do whatever
they need to do in order to preserve themselves—without
the rule of law.
Ethics—The Basics
SOCIAL CONTRACT ETHICS
Theological world view
Usually emphasizes how human beings are
distinct from the natural world
Scientific world view
Usually emphasizes how human beings are part
of the natural world
Ethics—The Basics
SOCIAL CONTRACT ETHICS
• Hobbes thought that in a state of nature there is
NO NATURAL MORAL LAW.
—If we accept the concept of Psychological
Egoism, then every human being has the same
tendency; we are equal, and we are equally
vulnerable to each other.
—The only laws are those we all agree to follow.
• Hobbes thought that in a state of nature there is
NO NATURAL INCLINATION TO DEVELOP VIRTUE
Ethics—The Basics
SOCIAL CONTRACT ETHICS
Hobbes thought that A STATE OF NATURE IS REALLY
A STATE OF WAR, when everyone is pursuing his
or her own interests without regard for the needs
or concerns of others. According to Hobbes, in
the state of nature:
• There is no right or wrong, no just or unjust, so
we cannot object to the choices of others.
• There is nothing wrong with psychological egoism
or ethical egoism.
Ethics—The Basics
SOCIAL CONTRACT ETHICS
• However, Hobbes realized that in a state of nature, in a
state of war, no one can get what they really want—
security, stability, and creature comforts.
• Because they are rational creatures, humans will invent
ways to escape from the state of nature
—
—
They will enter into mutually beneficial
contracts/alliances with others
They realize that through these contracts they have a better
chance to get what they want.
Ethics—The Basics
SOCIAL CONTRACT ETHICS
For Hobbes, humans cooperate because
they realize they have a better chance of getting
what they want if they make agreements with
each other—e.g., barter.
For Hobbes, there are only two kinds of law–
1. Scientific laws of nature
2. Human-made laws
Ethics—The Basics
SOCIAL CONTRACT ETHICS
ETHICAL EGOISM
RULE-EGOISM (SCE)
I’m lookin’ out for #1!
You scratch my back and I ‘ll
scratch yours!
Rational egoism
Rational egoism
Principle of Self-Interest
Principle of the Social Contract
Self-centeredness
Reciprocity
Permits “evil” actions
Limits evil actions to a contract
Ethics—The Basics
SOCIAL CONTRACT ETHICS
For Hobbes, rationality is necessary for
philosophical ethics:
• People can only make agreements with
each other, not with animals
• People need rationality to understand
the consequences of their actions
Ethics—The Basics
SOCIAL CONTRACT ETHICS
For Hobbes, words are not enough
to enforce contracts; a “sword” is
necessary as well:
• This is because even rational beings
sometimes break contracts
• Laws, penalties, police—i.e.,
governments—are the “sword”
Ethics—The Basics
SOCIAL CONTRACT ETHICS
For an effective contract, it must
1. Be between rational individuals
who understand the terms of the
contract, and can agree to them
2. Have some mechanism in place
to penalize violations of the
contract
Ethics—The Basics
SOCIAL CONTRACT ETHICS
Social Contract Ethics endorses
“common-sense morality”:
• Do not kill
• Do not break promises; do not deceive
• Do not steal
WHY IS THIS “COMMON SENSE”?
Hobbes sums this up in a “Principle of
Reciprocity”
Ethics—The Basics
SOCIAL CONTRACT ETHICS
The “Principle of Reciprocity” is like
the “Golden Rule”:
• “Do not that to another which thou wouldest
not have done to thyselfe” (Leviathan, CH 15: “A
Rule…”)
• Contractarians claim that the reason for helping
others is not altruism, but enlightened egoism
Ethics—The Basics
SOCIAL CONTRACT ETHICS
SCE, or rule-egoism, can be seen in
most world religions:
• The covenants/contracts of God with
man in Western religions (e.g. Judaism,
Christianity, Islam)
• The concept of “karma” in many
Eastern religions (e.g. Hinduism,
Buddhism, Jainism)
Ethics—The Basics
SOCIAL CONTRACT ETHICS
However, since SCE is non-religious, it
focuses on the present life, and on
present society:
“Do I want to live in a society where
people do not get prosecuted for
crimes?”
“Suppose everybody did that…”
Ethics—The Basics
SOCIAL CONTRACT ETHICS
SCE claims to:
• Put common-sense morality on a
solid footing
• Give the best explanation of why
we follow the ethical rules we do
• Explain why we should follow
ethical rules
Ethics—The Basics
SOCIAL CONTRACT ETHICS
SCE claims to be ethically
universalist, not ethically relativist:
Since the framework of SCE can fit a
variety of different standards in a
variety of different contracts in a
variety of different cultures, it
claims to be universally applied.
Ethics—The Basics
SOCIAL CONTRACT ETHICS
SCE does not argue for blind
obedience to the rules and laws of a
society. When the rules and laws of
society are bad (unjust), civil
disobedience and wars of
independence can be justified,
according to SCE.
Ethics—The Basics
SOCIAL CONTRACT ETHICS
Justice is an ethical concept that is
used to explain whether a social
contract is good or bad.
—Managing the terms of a social contract is a
balancing act, between obeying the contract, and
modifying it to be just to all
—We must follow the rules if they are reasonable
rules for rational selfish beings to follow
Ethics—The Basics
SOCIAL CONTRACT ETHICS
SCE provides answers to the four
philosophical problems of ethics:
• With regard to human nature, it accepts
psychological egoism, and argues that all
human beings are ultimately rational egoists
• It accepts cultural relativism and ethical
universalism, but not ethical relativism
Ethics—The Basics
SOCIAL CONTRACT ETHICS
• With regard to the origin of ethics, it
theorizes that all ethical standards come
from human beings, who created these
standards by making contracts
• With regard to the problem of right and
wrong, SCE holds that a rule for action
(a contract) is right if it justly benefits
you and others, and wrong if it is unjust
Ethics—The Basics
SOCIAL CONTRACT ETHICS
The Appeal of SCE:
1. Takes the mystery out of ethics, making it practical and
down to earth
2. Makes it clear how morality can be rational and
objective even if there are no moral facts
3. Explains why we should care about ethics
4. Gives us a sensible and mature way of determining our
ethical duties
5. Assumes relatively little about human nature
Ethics—The Basics
SOCIAL CONTRACT ETHICS
The Advantages of SCE:
• Tells us what moral rules to follow,
and how they are justified
• Tells us why it is reasonable for us to follow moral rules
• Tells us under what circumstances it is rational to break
the moral rules (reciprocity is the key)
• Tells us how much morality can demand of us (we must
be impartial)
Ethics—The Basics
SOCIAL CONTRACT ETHICS
The Disadvantages of SCE:
• It is anthropocentric—only “rational beings” (i.e.
rational human beings) are considered…
• According to SCE, morality consists in the rules
that rational people accept provided others
accept them.
WHAT HAPPENS IF OTHERS DO NOT ACCEPT THESE MORAL RULES?
• Although SCE appears to deny “moral facts,” it
actually postulates them, i.e., defining “benefit.”
Ethics—The Basics
SOCIAL CONTRACT ETHICS
More Disadvantages of SCE:
• One common objection is that SCE is based on a
historical fiction, i.e., the “state of nature.”
• What about duties toward beings who are not able to
participate in the contract, such as babies, animals,
persons in non-rational states?
• Since SCE is based on egoism, what about “free riders”—
people who wish to benefit from the rules, but will
violate them is they can get away with the violation
(ethical egoism)?
Ethics—The Basics
SOCIAL CONTRACT ETHICS
Disadvantages of Ethical Egoism:
• Ethical Egoism violates the Principle of Impartiality, or
Equal Treatment
– The Principle of Impartiality is that we should regard all others as equals to
ourselves. This means to treat all persons in the same way unless there is a
relevant difference between them.
– Ethical Egoism calls each of us to divide everything into two categories—
myself and all the rest—and to treat the concerns of those in the first group
as more important than the concerns of those in the second group.
• Ethical Egoism endorses wicked actions—as long as that
those actions benefit the person who performs them.