ARGUMENT
Definition
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Is not always a shouting match, as
many people think but is based on
reason and logic
Is an appeal to the readers’ intellect
Issues are complex and debatable
Is a path of reasoning aimed at
discovering the truth or falsehood of
an issue under debate
ARGUMENT/PERSUASION
Important Points
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Both are used together but they are
not the same thing.
Both are often blended.
Persuasion is a purpose for writing.
Argument is an appeal to the
readers’ intellect.
ARGUMENT/PERSUASION
Reasons to Persuade
1. To promote change.
Example: To have computers in
every classroom at Southeast
College.
2. To oppose a theory.
Example: Writing a history paper,
claiming that antislavery sentiment
was not the cause of the Civil War.
ARGUMENT/PERSUASION
Reasons to Persuade
3. To arouse sympathy.
Example: Passing more stringent laws against
people who abuse animals or for those who
drive while under the influence of alcohol.
4. To stimulate interest.
Example: Soliciting administrators and faculty
to implement a new course, such as Women’s
African-American Studies.
ARGUMENT/PERSUASION
Reasons to Persuade
5. To promote change
Example: To appeal to apartment
owners to provide more lighting or
on-site security or security gates
for tenants’ safety.
6. To provoke anger
Example: To arouse outrage against a
proposed tax hike or to get a petition to
abolish new legislation.
ARGUMENT/PERSUASION
Reasons to Persuade
7. To support a cause.
Example: To urge people to contribute
to different charity relief or fundraisers.
8. To urge people to take action.
Example: To get people to vote in an
upcoming election; to get people
involved in their local civic associations;
to urge people to write their elected
officials to get legislation passed or
repealed.
ARGUMENT/PERSUASION
Reasons to Persuade
9. To organize a public protest, using signs
and banners, where citizens censure
legislation.
10. To urge citizens to attend Town Hall
meetings in designated areas in
Houston for a progress report on
the many activities of our legislators
and the laws that passed or failed.
ARGUMENT/PERSUASION
Reasons to Persuade
11. To ask for a raise in salary.
12. To pay a bonus to employees who
have perfect attendance for a year
as an incentive not to miss work
or to contribute ideas that may
save a company time or money,
thereby improving efficiency.
ARGUMENT/PERSUASION
Obstacles
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World events
Media “brainwashing”
Family influences
Fear of rejection by our peers
Being told our views are wrong, bad,
or immoral by so-called “experts.”
PERSUASION
Definition and Test for Success
Definition: To convince a person to think, act, or
behave in a certain way.
Test for success: If a person has changed his/
her views, actions, or behavior in favor of the
speaker or writer, then he/she has been persuaded.
Important: Even if a reader’s view has not been
changed, he/she may agree with the evidence but
not the conclusion.
ARGUMENT/PERSUASION
Appeals
Logical
 Ethical
Emotional
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ARGUMENT/PERSUASION
Definition of Appeals
Logical – based on facts, statistics, reasons
Example: A lawyer who is arguing a
case relies on a variety of evidence:
eyewitness testimony, experts, DNA,
visuals (charts, graphs, photos),
reenactments, audio tapes, and arguing
from precedent.
ARGUMENT/PERSUASION
Definition of Appeals
Ethical – comes from the writer’s character
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Depends on one’s ability to convince readers of
his/her intelligence, commitment, and knowledge
of the issues.
Shows that a writer respects the readers’ point of
view.
Shows that a writer has done his/her homework.
Claims are not exaggerated or excessive.
ARGUMENT/PERSUASION
Definition of Appeals
Emotional – A message that appeals to the senses
and personal biases and prejudices of the reader.
Uses connotative language (words that elicit certain
feelings when a word is heard).
Example: “Corporate athleticism,” or increasing
profits, describes the business-minded attitude
that the NFL uses today. Question: What tone
does the writer have about the NFL?
ARGUMENT/PERSUASION
Elements Most Likely to Convince Readers
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The writer’s competence
Quality of the reasoning (sound logic
and reasonable facts)
The degree to which writers appeal
to the readers’ self-interests (benefit
to readers)
ARGUMENT/PERSUASION
Types of Reasoning
Deductive – direct method (Hint:
(remember two d’s)
 Moves from a broad generalization
(thesis) to specifics (examples, reasons,
evidence).
 A conclusion follows from a set of
assertions or premises.
 If the premises are true, then so is the
conclusion.
 To challenge an argument, a reader has to
evaluate the premises.
ARGUMENT/PERSUASION
Types of Reasoning
Inductive – indirect method (Hint: Remember two
i’s.
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Does not prove an argument is true.
Convinces readers the argument is probable.
Presents evidence logically by moving through an
assortment of data, which leads to a conclusion.
Used most often by lawyers, scientists,
detectives, and mystery writers.
ARGUMENT/PERSUASION
Assessing Evidence in Inductive Argument
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Is it accurate? The facts must be correct.
Is it relevant? The evidence must be
connected to the point being made.
Is it representative? The conclusion must
be supported by evidence gathered from a
sample that accurately reflects the larger
population.
Is it sufficient? There must be enough
evidence to satisfy skeptical readers.
ARGUMENT/PERSUASION
Toulmin Method of Analyzing Arguments
Based on three facets:
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Claim – a point or a thesis; an
assertion about a topic.
Grounds – reasons and evidence
(facts, statistics, anecdotes, and
expert opinion).
Warrants – assumptions or principles
that link the grounds to the claims.
ARGUMENT/PERSUASION
Toulmin Method of Analyzing an Argument
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Statement: The death penalty should be
abolished because if it is allowed, innocent people
could be executed.
Part 1 – The independent clause is the thesis.
Part 2 – The dependent clause presents grounds
for the claims. (1) It is wrong to execute
innocent people and (2) it is impossible to be
completely sure of a person’s innocence or guilt.
ARGUMENT/PERSUASION
Types of Evidence for Claims
Using similes, metaphors, and imagery
Examples: “Our response to sexual predators must balance
the extent and intensity of the possible behavior with the
probability of its occurrence. An ex-prisoner likely to expose
himself on a crowded subway may be a risk we are willing to
assume. However, a prisoner with even a moderate
probability of sexual torture and murder is not. Such violence
is like a rock dropped into a calm pool—the concentric
circles spread even after the rock has sunk (a simile and
imagery).”
Source: “Sex Predators Can’t Be Saved” – Andrew Vachss
ARGUMENT/PERSUASION
Types of Evidence for Claims
Facts and statistics
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Can be convincing.
Opponents can interpret same facts
and statistics differently.
Opponents may also cite different
facts and statistics to prove their
claims.
ARGUMENT/PERSUASION
Types of Evidence for Claims
Expert opinion – The views of authorities
in a given field is powerful evidence for a
claim. However, the expert must have the
proper credentials on the issue.
Example: According to Carl Blyth, an
expert on football safety, the head coach ‘s
attitude and leadership are the most
important factors in creating the balance to
win with the safety of the players.
ARGUMENT/PERSUASION
Types of Evidence for Claims
Anecdotes – brief narratives used as
illustrations to support a claim.
Example: court cases
 Stories appeal to our emotions and
intellect.
 Narratives can be very effective in
making an argument because they
personalize an experience.
ARGUMENT/PERSUASION
Titles
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A title is compelling.
A title is usually a fragment.
A title suggests the subject matter.
A title may consist of a subtitle
followed by a major title.
Example: Affirmative Action:
Leveling the Playing Field for
Minorities or Using Quotas to Fill
Colleges and Jobs?
ARGUMENT/PERSUASION
Presenting Evidence
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For a supportive audience: Place
the evidence from the most
important to the least important.
For a hostile audience – Place the
evidence from the least important to
the most important. In other words,
save your most compelling evidence
toward the end of the essay.
ARGUMENT/PERSUASION
Fallacy
Definition: Mistakes in logic; faulty
reasoning used to reach a conclusion.
Results of using a fallacy – Unclear
thinking; unclear logic; deceiving
readers.
ARGUMENT/PERSUASION
Common Logical Fallacies
False authority – presenting testimony of
an unqualified person to support a claim.
Example: “As the actor who plays Dr.
Fine on Emergency Room, I recommend this
weight-loss drug because … “ [Is an actor
qualified to judge the benefits and dangers
of a diet drug?]
ARGUMENT/PERSUASION
Strategies
Refutation – using contradictory
evidence to show that a position is false or
exposing inadequate reasoning to show that
a position cannot be true.
Defenses – clarifying a position; presenting
new arguments to support a position;
showing that criticisms of a position are
unreasonable or unconvincing.
ARGUMENT/PERSUASION
How to Avoid a Fallacy
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Use enough examples to support an
assertion.
Qualify a broad statement about a
group of people or things.
Example: Use words like some,
most, a few, many, or a majority.
Cite examples that prove your
assertion.
ARGUMENT/PERSUASION
Common Logical Fallacies
Non sequitur – a conclusion that does
not logically follow from evidence presented
or one based on irrelevant evidence.
Example: Students who default on their
loans are irresponsible people. (Students
who default have reasons for their non
payment). We cannot conclude they are
irresponsible without modifying the
statement.
ARGUMENT/PERSUASION
Common Logical Fallacies
Hasty generalization – a form of improper
induction that draws a conclusion based on
insufficient evidence.
Example 1: No one can logically conclude
that one bad grade on an assignment is
indicative that a student will fail a course or
that a few bad teachers add up to a bad
school.
ARGUMENT/PERSUASION
Common Logical Fallacies
Example 2: Temperatures across the
United States last year exceeded the fiftyyear average by two degrees, thus proving
that global warming is a reality. [Is this
evidence enough to prove this broad
conclusion?]
ARGUMENT/PERSUASION
Common Logical Fallacies
Sweeping Generalization – a statement that
cannot adequately be supported no matter how
much evidence is supplied.
Example: Everyone should exercise. Most people
would agree, but not all people can exercise. Those
who are bedridden or wheelchair bound cannot
exercise their body, but they can exercise their
mind. Note: Be careful not to use absolutes
because they allow for NO exceptions!
ARGUMENT/PERSUASION
common Logical Fallacies
Guilt by association – discrediting a
person because of problems with
one’s associates.
Example: Martin’s friend is an ex-felon, so
Martin’s character is questionable. (Why
should Martin’s character be in question
because of his friend’s past mistakes with
the law?)
ARGUMENT/PERSUASION
Common Logical Fallacies
Stacking the deck – slanting evidence to
support a position.
Example: Nine out of ten doctors have
endorsed this product, so it is guaranteed to
work. On the surface, this statement sounds
convincing. [However, which doctors were
interviewed? Were they all hired by the company
that makes the product?}
ARGUMENT/PERSUASION
Common Logical Fallacies
False authority – presenting testimony
of an unqualified person to support a
claim.
Example: As the actor who plays Dr.
Fine on Emergency Room, I recommend this
weight-loss drug because … “{Is an actor
qualified to judge the benefits and dangers
of a diet drug?]
ARGUMENT/PERSUASION
Common Logical Fallacies
False analogy – a comparison in which a surface
similarity hides a significant difference.
Example: Governments and businesses both work
within a budget to accomplish their goals. Just as
businesses must focus on the “bottom line,”
so should government. [Is the goal of government
to make a profit or does it have more important
goals?]
ARGUMENT/PERSUASION
Common Logical Fallacies
Red herring – an argument that diverts
attention from the true issues by
concentrating on something irrelevant.
Example: Hemingway’s book Death in
the Afternoon is unsuccessful because
it glorifies the brutal sport of bullfighting.
[Why can’t a book about a brutal sport be
successful? The statement is irrelevant.]
ARGUMENT/PERSUASION
Common Logical Fallacies
Begging the question – circular
reasoning that assumes the truth of a
questionable opinion.
Example: The president’s poor relationship
with the military has weakened the armed
forces. [Does the president have a poor
relationship? If so, is it the only reason for
this so-called “weakened” relationship?]
ARGUMENT/PERSUASION
Common Logical Fallacies
Bandwagon – an argument that depends on going
along with the crowd on the false assumption that
truth is based on a “popular” view.
Example – Everybody knows that Hemingway is
preoccupied with the theme of death in his novels.
[Everybody implies there are no exceptions or
exclusions.] Is this statement too strong? Does it
need to be modified? If so, what are possible
revisions?
ARGUMENT/PERSUASION
Common Logical Fallacies
Ad hominem – a personal attack on
someone who disagrees with you
rather than on the person’s argument.
Example: The district attorney is a lazy
political hack, so naturally she opposes
streamlining the court system. [Even if she
usually support her party’s position, is she
automatically wrong to oppose this issue?
ARGUMENT/PERSUASION
Common Logical Fallacies
Circular reasoning – an argument that restates
the point rather than supporting it with evidence.
Example: The wealthy should pay more taxes
because taxes should be higher for people with
higher incomes. [Why should wealthy people pay
more taxes? The rest of the statement does not
answer this question—it merely restates the
position.]
ARGUMENT/PERSUASION
Common Logical Fallacies
Either/or fallacy – The idea that a
complicated issue can be resolved by
resorting to one of only two options when in
reality, there are additional issues to
consider.
Example: Either the state legislature will
raise taxes or our state’s economy will
deteriorate. [Is raising taxes the only way
to avoid a state deficit?]
ARGUMENT/PERSUASION
Common Logical Fallacies
Equivocation – when the meaning of a key word
or phrase shifts during an argument.
Example: It is not in the public interest for the
public to lose interest in politics. Although clever,
the shift in meaning of the term public interest
clouds an important issue: we need to VOTE and
support the candidates whom we believe are the
most qualified and will act in our behalf.
ARGUMENT/PERSUASION
Example of a Fallacy
Major premise – All embezzlers are
criminals.
Minor premise - All embezzlers are
people.
Conclusion – Therefore, all people are
embezzlers. [Is this true?] If not, how
should the conclusion be stated?
ARGUMENT/PERSUASION
Learning How to Argue
1. Figure out what the issue is. People
argue about issues, not topics. You
may want to turn your topic into a
problem by asking questions about it.
Does something indicate that all is not
the way it should be? If so, have they
changed for the worse? From what
perspectives—economic, social, political,
cultural, medical, or geographic can the
argument be made?
ARGUMENT/PERSUASION
Learning How to Argue
2. Develop a reasonable position
that negotiates differences. As a writer
you want readers to trust your judgment.
Conducting research will make you
informed; reading other people’s views and
thinking critically about them will enhance
the quality and scope of your argument.
ARGUMENT/PERSUASION
Learning How to Argue
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Find out what others have to say
about the issue; negotiate the
differences between your position
and theirs.
Pay attention to your areas of
disagreement but acknowledge
areas of agreement as well.
ARGUMENT/PERSUASION
Learning How to Argue
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Always remember that two views on the
same issue can be similar but not
identical or different but not completely
opposite.
Avoid language that may promote
prejudice or fear.
Furthermore, avoid misrepresentations of
others, ideas, and personal attacks on
someone’s character.
ARGUMENT/PERSUASION
Learning How to Argue
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Write arguments to open minds,
not offend.
3. Make a strong claim.
Advancing a strong debatable thesis
(claim) on a topic of interest is the
key to writing a successful
argument.
ARGUMENT/PERSUASION
Learning How to Argue
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Keep in mind, though, that as you
think, write, and learn about your
topic, you will develop, clarify, and
sometimes entirely change your
views.
Think of yourself as a potter working
with clay. Your thesis is still forming
as you work on the topic.
ARGUMENT/PERSUASION
Learning How to Argue
Personal feeling on a debatable issue
I (feel, think, believe) that professional football
players are treated poorly.
Accepted fact, not a debatable issue
Many players in the NFL are injured each year.
Debatable Thesis
Current NFL regulations are not enough to protect
players from suffering the hardships caused by
game-related injuries.
ARGUMENT/PERSUASION
Learning How to Argue
4. Support and develop your
claim
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Think of an argument as a dialogue
between the writer and the readers.
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A well-developed argument includes
a variety of evidence.
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Pay attention counterarguments
(claims that do not support your
position).
ARGUMENT/PERSUASION
Using Counterarguments
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Qualify your thesis in light of the
counterarguments by including a
word such as most, some, usually,
likely, or may.
Example: Although many people—
fans and non-fans alike—understand
that football is a dangerous sport, few
realize just how hard some NFL players
have it.
ARGUMENT/PERSUASION
Using Counterarguments
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Add to the thesis a statement of the
conditions for or exceptions to your
position.
Example: The NFL pension plan is
unfair to players who have fewer
than five years in the league. The
plan is unfair to certain players, not
all of them.
ARGUMENT/PERSUASION
Using Counterarguments
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Choose all the counterarguments you
can find and plan to refute their
truth or importance in your paper.
Example: Biglione, for example, refutes
the counterargument that the NFL has a
good pension plan for its players.
ARGUMENT/PERSUASION
Learning How to Argue
5. Create an outline that includes a
linked set of reasons.
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An introduction to the topic and the
debatable issue.

A thesis stating your position on the
issue.
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A point-by-point account of the reasons
for your position, including
the evidence (facts, statistics, a study,
expert opinion) you will use to support
each major reason.
ARGUMENT/PERSUASION
Using Counterarguments
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A fair presentation and refutation of
the counterarguments to your thesis.
A response to the “So what?”
question. Why does your argument
matter?
ARGUMENT/PERSUASION
Learning How to Argue
6. Appeal to your audience
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Share common ground with your
audience.
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Use all three appeals (logos (logic),
ethos (character), and pathos
(emotion).
7. Emphasize your commitment to dialogue
in the introduction by sharing a concern
with your audience.
8. Conclude by restating your position and
emphasizing its importance.
ARGUMENT/PERSUASION
Learning How to Argue
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Remind readers of your thesis.
The version of your thesis presented in
your introduction should be more
complex and qualified than the
introduction to encourage readers to
see the importance of your argument.
Even if readers do not agree with you,
they should be aware of the importance
of both the issue and the argument.
ARGUMENT/PERSUASION
Learning How to Argue
10. Reexamine your reasoning.
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Have you given a sufficient number of
reasons to support your thesis, or should
you add more?
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Have you made any mistakes in logic
(a fallacy)?
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Have you clearly and adequately
developed each reason you have
presented in support of your thesis?
ARGUMENT/PERSUASION
Potential Traps to Avoid
1. Don’t claim too much. You cannot
state the solution you propose will
solve all the problems; for example,
implying that legalizing drugs would
alleviate all drug-related crimes. It
would prevent some crimes, but it would
create other problems. State the ideas
that you think are worth considering, or
suggest a new approach.
ARGUMENT/PERSUASION
Potential Traps to Avoid
2. Don’t oversimplify complex issues.
When an issue is serious enough to debate, it is
complicated, and the issues are difficult to solve.
Trying to make an issue simpler by stating there
is an “obvious” solution undermines your
credibility. Instead, acknowledge the matter is
difficult to solve but suggest there are some
possible solutions.
ARGUMENT/PERSUASION
Potential Traps to Avoid
3. Support arguments with concrete
evidence and specific proposals, not
with generalizations and commonly held
beliefs. Because your argument is likely to
be viewed by a skeptical audience, readers will
expect you to demonstrate your case
convincingly. Moreover, they will not be
persuaded by opinion alone. You can only
expect to hold their attention and get respect if
you teach them something in your argument by
presenting an old problem in a new way.
SOURCES
The New McGraw-Hill Handbook –
Maimon, Peritz, and Yancey.
The Wadsworth Handbook – Kirszner
and Mandell.