Ecologism
• Anthropocentrism- human centred political
ideologies which are questioned by
ecologists as nature is interconnected.
• Shallow ecologism- aims to harness
lessons of ecology for human ends.
• Deep ecologism- rejects the idea that
humans are amore important species
Origins…
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Pre 1970s environmentalism meant concern about natural environment and actions
to reduce its degradation it was policy and not ideology
Paganism- Mother earth, Hinduism, Buddhism, Taoism…
A reaction against industrialisation but only happens in countries where there has
been rapid industrialisation- Germany Back to Nature and later Blood and Soil
movement
1960s provoked by further industrialisation and urbanisation. Rachel Carson in The
Silent Spring (1962) criticised damage done to wildlife by human world- pesticides
and agri chemicals.
Emergence of a new generation of activist pressure groups- Greenpeace, FOE,
animal liberation and eco warriors. These together with established larger groups
such as WWF Nature, establishment of Green Party help to give environmental
movement greater profile esp in advanced industrial states.
It became a global issue with UN conference on Human Environment at Stockholm in
1972- first attempt at international framework for coordinated approach to
environmental problems. Idea of sustainable development came in 1987 in a report
by UNO World Commission on the Environment and Development.
Core themes
Return to Nature
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Unlike other ideologies it does not place humans at the centre, it aims at a radical transformation
of human consciousness and moral compass…
It [Ecologism] maintains that the basic fact which should be given pride of place is that we
are natural creatures. That is we are a species of animal inhabiting a rich and complex
biological context. This fact has either been ignored or consciously downplayed by other
political ideologies. Our possession of rationality and the intensity and elaboration of our
cultural activities in particular have been held to make us special, different in some sense
set apart from the rest of nature. Ecologism insists this is not so. We are a species of
animal with a highly distinctive set of capacities, but once we begin to view ourselves in
the appropriate context, on the basis of our awareness of the rest of the natural world, we
can see important kinds of continuity between ourselves and that world…
Facing this fact directly ought to make us more concerned than we have been hitherto
about how that world is faring. We ought to, to become immediately more sensitive to the
moral claims which our fellow creatures have upon us. We ought to become aware of how
our well-being and fate are intertwined with those of other living beings with which recent
Darwinian biology and ancient tribal lore claim we share a common descent.
Ecology
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Developing from Biology, a growing realisation that life is sustained by self
regulating natural systems (ecosystems). Ecosystems are mutually
dependent on one another- The largest of which is the global ecosystem
or ecosphere or biosphere a lake is such an ecosystem but fed by
tributaries, warmth and energy provided by the sun and it provides water
and food for life on its shores.
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Ecologists argue that humanity’s pursuit of material wealth endangers the
environment via population growth, exploitation irreplaceable fossil fuels,
eradication rain forests, pollution lakes, rivers and seas, chemical and
hormonal additives to food, threat to biodiversity- RSPB report 2012 warns
of threat to species in the UK dependent territories where 85% of UK
endangered species live.
Shallow Ecology- learn lessons from ecologism for human benefit a form
of enlightened anthropocentrism…
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Deep Ecology- man is not the centre, purpose is for human life to help
sustain nature not vice versa
Holism
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Holism as an idea was developed by Jan Smuts (South African statesman) in 1926. The whole is
made up of the many parts. The natural world can only be understood as a whole. He criticises
science for reductionism- the idea that everything can be reduced to separate parts. Baxter An
Introduction to Ecologism- the problem with atomism is that it presents a picture of the
human and non human world which fails to encompass the interconnectedness of things.
In particular, it encourages human beings to view themselves as in some important way
disconnected from the natural world around them…our existence and flourishing cannot
be separated conceptually or morally from the existence and flourishing of the rest of the
universe…
Physicists such as Niels Bohn (1885-1952) and Verner Heisenberg (1901-1976) the physical
world cannot be understood as a collection individual molecules, atoms, particles but a network of
reciprocal interaction.
In the Tao of Physics (1955) Fritjof Capra drew parallels between modern physics and eastern
mysticism- Hinduism Taoism, Buddhism preached the oneness of things. Primitive religions drew
no distinctions between different forms of life and even portrayed the earth as a living entitymother earth. James Lovelock developed the idea that the planet was alive in the Gaia Theory .
The earth’s biosphere exhibited self regulating behaviour characteristic of other forms of life.
Humans must therefore respect the health of the planet and seek to conserve its beauty and
resources.
Unlike humanist ecologists (Green Movement) which focus on what needs to be changed for
the sake of human survival, Gaia places as central the health of the planet. Lovelock argued that
those species which prosper are those which help the planet to regulate its existence whereas
those which run counter to this are threatened with extinction.
Sustainability
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Ecologists criticise mainstream parties- Grey Parties for their belief in unlimited possibilities for material growth
and prosperity. This is countered in Spaceship earth by Kenneth Boulding (1966) with its focus on exhaustible
wealth. There was a tendency for closed systems (spaceship earth) towards entropy - decay and disintegration.
E S Schumacher Small is Beautiful (1973) warned of the allowance of energy demands to soar ecologists say
that fuel resources are unlikely to last until the end of the present century. He argued that the mistake of humans
was to regard exhaustible resources such as fossil fuels as income resources which can be topped up each week.
Entropy is inevitable but it can be slowed only if humans recognise they are one element in a complex biosphere
and that only a healthy biosphere can sustain life. Ecologists draw a distinction between exhaustible resources
CAPITAL as opposed to renewable INCOME or NATURAL RESOURCES. This inevitably sets limits to ambitions.
A sustainable energy policy requires dramatic cuts in use of fossil fuels and search for alternatives which are
sustainable- income rather than capital resources such as fossil fuels.
Schumacher is a Buddhist economist seeing people not obsessed with wealth but as utility maximisers.
Production is not just about generation of goods and services but in the process of which personal growth is
developed which overcomes egocentredness by forging social bonds and encouraging of collaboration.
Modern ecologists Concern with reconcile ecology with economic growth- weak sustainability- get rich slower
Social ecology/Deep ecology Ecological sustainability linked to radical social change. Eco anarchists believe
human communities should be based on ecological principles. The ecological crisis is linked to materialism and
consumerism and eco anarchists aim to replace industrialisation with small rural communities
Environmental ethics
• Futurity- actions of the present should be judged as to their impact
on future generations (ecological stewardship). This has been
criticised on the grounds that in the view of conventional moral
thinkers all rights involve reciprocal obligations. Also present
generation may be making sacrifices for generations which may be
much better off or the sacrifices may be inadequate.
• As an alternative to environmental ethics is moral standards based
on belief that animals are non human persons. Which as sentient
beings capable of suffering deserve same consideration. This is a
rejection of specieism the idea of a gradation of species. Singerthe moral imperative is to avoid suffering to more developed, self
aware species such as the great apes Singer does not apply the
moral imperative to the human foetus or mentally impaired. Such a
view, according to Baxter Ecologism an Introduction some life
forms have greater wonderfulness and thus intrinsic value and
moral considerability than others…
From having to being (state of
mind?)
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Ecologists are critical of materialism the link between material consumption and pleasure.
Materialism tends to undermine rather than enhance psychological and emotional well beingconsumerism does not satisfy desires but creates new ones creating cultural basis for
environmental degradation.
Abraham Maslow (1908-70) developed hierarchy of needs placing self esteem and actualisation
above material needs. Conditions of material scarcity breed egotistical and acquisitive values
whereas in conditions of widespread prosperity individuals are more concerned with quality of life
such as morality, political justice, personal fulfilment.
Indeed, the spread of liberal values in the developed world such as the concepts of human rights,
autonomy and self development creates a unitary moral vocabulary within which to spread
the moral ideas of ecologism…Ecologism has sprung from cultures in which the moral
ideas of liberalism have been dominant…an acceptance of liberal moral notions with
respect to human beings is a facilitating step towards the acceptance of ecologism as
moral theory (Baxter an Introduction to Ecologism).
Quality of life thinking divorces the connection between happiness and material acquisition (
heavy influence on eco anarchists, feminists and deep ecology) a state of mind which seeks to
transcend the self. People are linked to all living things. Warwick Fox (1990) talks of
transpersonal ecology all living things are part of a single unfolding reality. Naess argued that self
realisation is attained through an identification with others. In this it is shaped by eastern religions
such as Buddhism which focusing on the no self holds that the ego is a myth/delusion and
enlightenment recognises the oneness of life.
On ideology
• Deep ecologism Dismisses traditional
ideologies as expressions of
anthropocentrism because even the term
ideology is associated with human
centred thinking.
• Shallow ecology Established political
traditions are capable accommodating a
positive view of non human nature.
Modernist Ecology
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Promotion of environmentally sound policies but do not reject capitalism
Liberalism- ecologists critical of liberalism for focus on individual
(anthropocentric) and classical liberalism for equating happiness with
material consumption. Modern liberalism however is a form of enlightened
anthropocentrism encouraging higher interests such as appreciation natural
world over lower pleasures such as consumption. This can be found in the
writings of J S Mill who was critical of rampant industrialisation in defence of
a stationary population and static economic growth, arguing that
appreciation of nature was vital to human fulfilment.
Eco Conservatism nostalgic about pre industrial society, rural society links
with natural and historical heritage. Green capitalism relies on capitalist
market to deliver ecologically sustainable outcomes as the market is
responsive to consumer choice or consumer sovereignty (wise
consumer???). Some green capitalists favour unregulated competition,
presumably placing faith in consumers to make ecologically friendly
spending/consumption choices whereas most support a managed
capitalism as environmental degradation can only be dealt effectively by
government
Social Ecology
• The US anarchist Murray Bookden (19212001) linked the environmental crisis to
the breakdown of the organic fabric of
society. It can be used to describe a
range of ideas which recognise the link
between environmental degradation and
existing social structure
Eco socialism
• Draws on pastoral socialism e.g. German Greens and also ideas of
William Morris- small scale craft communities living close to nature.
• Capitalism is seen as the cause of the environmental crisis as the
search for profit has despoiled the natural world and green
capitalism is a contradiction in terms as it breeds materialism and
consumerism. The market economy commodifies nature. If
capitalism is the enemy of the environment then the solution is to
abolish capitalism.
• Main stream socialist parties slow to adopt green issues because
electoral support depends on promise of growth and because as a
pro production political creed it preaches exploitation of the wealth of
the planet for human need.
• Eco socialists in contrast argue that socialism is naturally ecological.
If wealth is common it can be used in the interests of all and for the
long term interests of humanity. However consider the
environmentally disastrous consequences of the state socialist
regimes of the communist states.
Eco anarchism
• Anarchists have drawn a clear link between anarchism and ecology.
A stateless society is natural reliant on mutual respect and social
solidarity mirroring the balance which develops naturally within
nature in the form of ecosystems. ( what C19 Kropotkin Bookchin
linked anarchist community to an ecosystem)
• A decentralised society in the form of villages and communes, self
sufficient and close to nature, economically diverse a more
intelligent and loving use of the environment upon which each
community depends.
• A rejection of the state via which collective action can be organised
to solve environmental crisis. Here eco anarchists depart from the
Green movement which fear a weakened or absence of the state will
create a vacuum giving free rein to those forces which risk
environmental destruction.
Eco feminism
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Ecological destruction originates in patriarchy. Men not humankind is the threat…
From above emerges following two trends
Androgynous/sexless view- Patriarchy has divorced men from private world of nurturing, home
making, personal relationships and sexual division labour inclines men to subordinate women
and nature- in this sense eco feminism is a form of social ecology
Essentialism there are fundamental and in eradicable gender differences. Mary Daly in
Gyn/Ecology (1979) The notion of an intrinsic link between women and nature links back to pre
Christian religions- biological basis for women’s closeness to nature seen in bearing/suckling
children. Traditional female values include reciprocity, cooperation, nurturing which have a soft or
ecological character. Idea that nature is an exploitable resource or to be subdued is alien to
woman. The overthrow of patriarchy allows a new relationship between human society and the
natural world- eco feminism a firm commitment to ecocentrism (deep ecology)
Whereas there is natural bond women and nature men are creatures of culture, their world is man
made product of human ingenuity- intellect over intuition, materialism over spirituality, mechanical
relationships over holistic ones. Patriarchy establishes the supremacy of culture over natureecological destruction and gender inequality interlinked.
Ecologsim emphasises the ways in which the moral considerability of the non-humans has
been systematically ignored as a result of the human domination of the planet. Some eco
feminists have challenged this parallel, arguing that it is male domination which underlies
both the subordination of females and the domination of the non-human (Baxter An
Introduction to Ecologism)
Deep ecology
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Deep ecology also known as ecocentrism, ecosophy, ecophilosophy coined 1973 by
Arne Naess (Norwegian philosopher 1912-2008)- the earth does not belong to
human beings. His philosophy was known as Ecosophy T
Ecology and anthropocentrism are irreconcilable.
Biocentric equality- all organisms and entities in biosphere are equal moral worth.
All species a right to live and bloom- biodiversity linked to health and stability.
Deep ecology is concerned with metaphysics ( philosophy which is concerned with
explaining fundamental nature of existence/being. Deep ecology calls for a radical
change in consciousness, the adoption of ecological consciousness or cosmological
consciousness. At heart there is a call for an inter-subjective model of selfhood
where there is no distinction made between the self and the other- a collapsing of the
distinction between humankind and nature.
For deep ecologists environmental crisis not linked to any political, social, economic
system but in a mechanistic world view which has dominated western societies since
C17 where nature is thought as inert and valueless in itself, a resource for human
needs. There needs to be a paradigm change and deep ecologists look to modern
physics, eastern mysticism, primitive religion because each offers a radical vision of
holism- Deep ecologists place maintenance of ecological balance over achievement
human ends.
Deep ecologism concerned with
following…
• Wilderness preservation- keeping things as they are, protecting from
human encroachment. The natural world unspoilt by human
intervention is a repository wisdom and morality.
• Population control A substantial decrease in human popualtion only
way o ensure flourishing non human life- some reject aid to
devloping world , calling for lower birth rates even stop immigration
to devloped world.
• Simple living- Naess humans only right to reduce richness and
diversity nature to satisfy vital needs. Emphasis is on being not
having or as Naess put it walking lighter on the earth . Quality of
life over quantity possessions linked to post material model of self
actualisation or inner fulfilment by transcending egoism and
materialism or inwardly rich but outwardly poor.
• Bioregionalism Reconfigure human society with naturally defined
regions. Each being an ecosystem. A general support for self
reliant, self supporting autonomous communities clearly at odds with
national or state borders.
How has deep ecologism been
criticised
• The philosophical and ethical debates deep ecology has stimulated
has outweighed its practical importance within the green movement.
• Humanist ecologists reject the claim their views are a shallow
version of deep ecology and that deep ecology is flawed
philosophically and morally- philosophical flaw is the belief that
anthropocentrism and ecology are exclusive.
• Moral flaws are based on criticism of idea of intrinsic value of nature.
Environmental ethics cannot be non anthropocentric because
morality is human construct- good and bad only apply any meaning
when applied to humans.
• Social ecologists such as Murray Bookchin attack deep ecology as
socially conservative ignoring the radical social change necessary
for any inner revolution but also because it turns its back on
rationalist thought by embracing mysticism thereby becoming vulgar
Californian spiritualism or Eco-la-la