Liberalism
Historical development
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Breakdown of feudalism and growth of a market or capitalist economy.
Reflected the aspirations of rising middle class who challenged the
entrenched power of feudal landed class and absolutist monarchy basing its
power on divine right.
A C19 European phenomenon coincide with industrialisation a new order
demanded freedom from government control. However spread of
industrialisation to Asia and Africa did not lead to liberalism where societies
stressed community over individual.
Most powerful ideological force shaping western political tradition- as rising
middle class establish their economic and political pre-eminence liberalism
becomes less radical as liberals aim to defend the new status quo.
Later or modern liberals came to advocate greater not less government
intervention in terms of welfare as a means of promoting personal
development.
C20 appeared to culminate in worldwide triumph liberalism as liberal model
of representative government and market based economics spread. By
2000 2/3 of states in world significant liberal democratic features
Individual
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Post feudalism- new intellectual climate emerges- individuals thought to
possess personal and distinctive qualities each was of special value..
John Locke (1632-`704) individuals had inalienable rights. German
philosopher Emmanuel kant (1724-1804) belief in dignity and equal worth of
human beings..
Each human being is unique but all share same status in that they are
individuals.
Individualism is the belief that the individual is central to any political theory
Some liberals see humans as essentially atomistic- C B Macpherson in
1973 characterised early liberalism as ‘possessive individualism’ the
individual as proprietor of his own person owing nothing to society. This is
classical liberalism. Classical liberals and the new right subscribe to
egotistical individualism.
Later liberals argue that individuals are communal and have a responsibility
towrds others. This is developmental from of individualism that prioritises
human flourishing over quest for interest satisfaction.
Freedom
• Ties in logically with belief in individual. .
• Individual liberty is unifying principle in liberal ideology.
• For early liberals it was a natural right and essential requirement for
human existence. Later liberals seen liberty as only condition in
which people can develop skills and talents and fulfil potential..
• JS Mill on Liberty 1859 acknowledge that people had to be
constrained from harming others.. Mill did not accept any
restrictions on individual designed to prevent self harm. An
individual has sovereign right over his mind/body but each must
respect that all have equal right to liberty- John Rawls.
• Early liberals believed that freedom consists in each person being
left alone free from interference or ‘negative’ freedom. Modern
liberals such as Isaiah Berlin a more ‘positive’ view- the ability to be
one’s own master- each individual the able to develop skills and
talents and to achieve self realisation.
Reason
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Liberalism a product of the enlightenment the central theme of which was to release
humankind from superstition and ignorance.
The world was a rational structure and knowledge flows from reason rather than from
experience (empiricism) a rejection of custom or tradition and non rational drives and
impulses.
The power of reason gives people the capacity to take charge of their own lives and
to shape their destiny.
Rationalism emancipates human kind from the past and from weight of custom and
tradition. Each generation is able to advance beyond the stock of past knowledge
and this explains belief in progress and importance of education. Education seen as
a vital means of promoting self development and for achieving historical and social
advancement.
Liberals are optimistic about human nature people are guided by reason but do not
believe in human perfectibility. Liberals recognise power of self interest and egoism
resulting in conflict.
The great advantage of reason is that it provides a basis upon which rival claims can
be evaluated.
Liberals oppose violence and war as failure of reason and because it unleashes
irrational bloodlust and desire for power for its own sake and force only as last resort
when reason has failed.
Justice
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Justice is about giving each person their due.
Liberalism is a commitment to equality. Foundational equality is a belief that all are born equal
and each is of equal moral worth. It also implies a belief in formal equality. Liberals disapprove of
social privileges and advantages. Most important forms of formal equality are legal and political
equality.
Liberals advocate equality of opportunity. Accept social inequality because people have different
skills and some prepared to work harder. People must have the incentive to realise their potentialpeople must have equal opportunity to develop their unequal skills and abilities.
Meritocratic. This is the rule by the talented. Inequalities of wealth and position reflect the
unequal distribution of merits and skills. Or are based on factors outside of human control such as
luck. Such a society is socially just because individuals are judged solely by talents and
willingness to work not on other factors such as gender and ethnicity.
Classical liberals endorse strict meritocracy it provides an incentive and such wealth is justly
acquired (john Locke and Robert Nozick)
Other liberals disagree. John Rawls in A Theory of Justice states that economic inequality is
justifiable only if it works for benefit of poorest in society. He is an advocate of the welfare system.
In contrast to classical liberals who argued that rise of capitalism over feudalism created a market
society where each can flourish in accordance with their personal merits, modern liberals believe
unrestrained capitalism has led to new forsm of social injustice.
Toleration and Diversity.
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Pluralism or diversity rooted in principle of individualism. A belief in diversity or multiplicity the existence of many
things.
Toleration means forbearance a willingness to allow people to think, speak and act in ways which we disapprove.
Toleration is an ethical ideal and a social principle representing a goal of personal autonomy and establishing a set
of rules on human interaction.
Liberal case for toleration goes back to C17 when John Milton (1608-74) and John Locke argue for religious
toleration. Liberals distinguish therefore between public and private.
Mill in On Liberty (1859) argued that toleration was necessary to ensure vigour and health of society as a whole.
Only within a free market of ideas will ‘truth’ emerge as good ideas displace bad ones. Contest, debate and
argument the fruit of diversity or multiplicity the motor of social progress.
It is also linked to a belief in a balanced society not riven by fundamental conflict. Above social divisions lies a
harmony/balance- employers want maximum profits, workers higher pay, shorter hours and better conditions.
However, workers need jobs and employers labour Above pursuit of self interest lies a natural equilibrium.
There are limits- Locke not prepared to extend religious toleration to Catholics on grounds they owed allegiance to
a foreign pope.. More commonly liberals do not tolerate intolerant views.
In most cases liberals do not belief in legal suppression of intolerance. JS Mill said open debate expose bad ideas
. Faith in toleration linked to universalism belief that liberal theories and values ultimately destined to prevail over
illiberal.
Late C20 moral neutrality abandon set of universal and fundamental values in favour of creating conditions in
which people with different moral and material priorities can live together peacefully. Isaiah Berlin said people are
bound to disagree about ultimate ends of life it deprives liberal values of a privileges status but underlines
importance tolerance preserving liberal institutions as only means preserving order and stability. Once liberalism
accepts moral pluralism however, it is difficult to contain within liberal framework.
Liberalism, government and
democracy
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Liberals unlike anarchists believe in the existence of a state. The liberty of one is a threat to that
of others. John Locke freedom can only exist under the law. The purpose of the political
institution ( I assume the state) is to preserve property endangered by the inevitable
disadvantages of the state of nature…
Thomas Hobbes on a stateless society where human life would be solitary, poor, nasty, brutish
and short. Locke and Hobbes argued that rational individuals entered into agreement or ‘social
contract’ to establish a sovereign government. To say that in the state of nature each person
can do anything that he deems useful for defending himself, means that each person has a
right over everything (a jus in omnia) including the beliefs of others. This ultimate right of
each person ensues necessarily from the war of all against all; it also is the source of war.
Only by renouncing this right can each person dry up war’s source…everyone will
renounce his right over everything and will transfer it to the one to whom he entrusts
sovereignty on the condition that this sovereign will promulgate the laws necessary to civil
peace and guarantee that they are obeyed
The state is created by and for individuals to serve their interests. Government arises out of
consent of governed. The people have the right to rebel if the government breaks its contract.
John Locke in Two treatises of Government (1690) justified the Glorious Revolution on these
grounds as did Thomas Jefferson in the American Declaration of independence 1776.
The state is created not by a privileged elite to exploit the masses but by common agreement and
therefore embodies interests of all and acts as neutral arbiter in conflict between competing
groups. By the following I presume Locke is arguing for elections So that the power cannot
wilfully divest members of their property and liberty it must not remain continually
assembled since then its own interests would risk becoming distinct from the common
interest
Constitutional Government
• Lord Acton- Power tends to corrupt and absolute power corrupts
absolutely.
• Liberals fear arbitrary government in its place favour limited
government.
• Constitutionalism is practice of limited government where
government is constrained by constitutional rules. Constitutionalism
refers to set of political values and aspirations reflecting a desire to
protect liberty via establish internal and external checks on
government power- a codified constitution, bill of rights, separation
of powers, bicameralism, decentralisation, federalism.
• Montesquieu (1689-1775) power should be a check to power.
Liberals argue for separation or fragmentation of power. The
principle of judicial independence central to all liberal democracies
as judiciary interprets the law and reviews the powers of the
government it must be independent in order to protect the individual.
Democracy
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A contested concept.
Liberal democracy is a hybrid combining belief in limited government with popular rule.
Liberal democracy is indirect and representative form of democracy political office gained in elections via formal political equality- OMOV.
It is based on competition and electoral choice political pluralism a toleration of wide range contending beliefs and a clear distinction
between state and civil society maintained by internal and external checks government power and existence autonomous groups and
interests and by market organisation economic life.
C19 liberals often saw democracy as threatening or dangerous. Democracy can become the enemy of individual liberty.
Alexis de Tocqueville (1805-59) described it as tyranny of the majority.. James Madison (1751-1836) argued best safeguard against
majoritarian tyranny was a network of checks and balances to make government responsive to competing minorities and to safeguard
propertied few against propertyless masses.
Wisdom is unevenly distributed and uneducated liable to act according to narrow class interests whereas educated able to use wisdom
and experience for good of others. JS Mill therefore argued that elected politicians should speak for themselves rather than reflect views
of voters, He also advocated plural voting on basis of education/social position..
Ortega y Gasset (1883-1955) saw mass democracy as paving the way for authoritarian rule as authoritarian rulers could sway the
masses.
However by C20 most liberals saw democracy as a virtue. Earliest example was belief in government by consent Locke argued for
voting rights for propertied classes so they could defend their natural rights against government . If government via taxation possess the
power to expropriate property then citizens entitled to protect themselves by controlling the tax making body..
Jeremy Bentham (1773-1836) advocate universal manhood suffrage- as only way of promoting the greatest happiness for greatest
number.
In its unrestrained form democracy leads to tyranny but in its absence ignorance and brutality prevails. According to Mill by participating
in political life citizens enhance their understanding and achieve a higher level of personal development this developmental democracy is
primarily an educational experience. Mill believed only the illiterate should not have the vote
Since C20 liberal theories about democracy tend to focus less on consent and participation and more on need for consensus in society.
A belief that in modern urban and industrial society organised groups have replaced individuals as primary actors. The attraction of
democracy is that it is only system of rule capable of maintaining equilibrium. As democracy gives competing groups a political voice it
binds them to the political system and maintains political stability. Robert Dahl and Charles Lindblom termed modern democratic
systems as polyarchies rule by the many as opposed to citizens. It is characterised by extension of vote to high proportion of adults and
the right of those citizens who oppose government to vote them out of office.
Classical Liberalism
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Earliest tradition a transition from feudalism to early industrialisation C19.
Cradle was UK where capitalist and industrial revolutions most advanced.
Ideas more deeply rooted in Anglo Saxon countries- UK and USA. 2nd half
C20 theories growing appeal the neoclassical liberalism greatest impact UK
and USA but influence spread wider fuelled by advance globalisation.
Classical liberals belief in egotistical individualism, humans are rational and
self interested with a capacity for self reliance. Society is atomistic.
A belief in negative freedom- individual is free in so far as he is not
interfered with or coerced.
The state is regarded as a necessary evil as it lays down conditions for
orderly existence and it is evil in that it imposes a collective will upon
society thereby limiting both individual freedom and responsibility.
Classical liberals believe in minimal or ‘night-watchman’ state (Locke). To
maintain domestic order, defence, enforce contracts.
A positive view of civil society which is a realm of freedom as opposed to a
realm of coercion which is the state. Classical liberals believe in self
regulating market economy…
Classical Liberals and Natural
Rights Theory
• A right is entitlement to act or be treated in a particular way. For
Locke and Jefferson rights are natural in that they are invested in
human beings by God and as such are inalienable. They are
establishing the essential conditions for leading a truly human
existence. For Locke- life, liberty and property. Jefferson denied
property god given but life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness.
• Whereas Hobbes argued for a total state power to prevent anarchy,
liberal writers such as Locke argued against arbitrary or unlimited
government.
• Locke and later liberals used the idea of individual rights to justify
popular revolt against government tyranny.
• For Locke the contract between state and citizens was specific to
protect a set of defined natural rights hence government must be
limited. They should not extend beyond public order, protect
property and defence, contracts are enforced. Jefferson also
agreed- ‘government is best which governs least.’
Utilitarianism
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Philosophy developed by Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832)
Huge impact on liberalism providing a moral philosophy that explains how
and why human beings act they way they do. It sees people as self
interested. Each individual is the sole judge of what can judge their
happiness then each individual must determine what I morally right. This
cannot be done by the state
Human beings are therefore rational and motivated by self interest which is
the desire for pleasure over pain.
The rightness of a policy/action can be determined by its tendency to
promote happiness so the principle of the greatest happiness for the
greatest number can be used to establish which policies will benefit society
at large. On this, Bentham developed a justification for laissez-faire
economics, constitutional reform and later political democracy.
However, Bentham’s focus on happiness of the greatest number as the
standard of morally correct allows the interests of the majority to outweigh
those of the minority- strict application of Benthamite principles can
therefore lead to majoritarian tyranny. In fact greatest number principle
influenced socialist thinkers late C19 and C20.
Economic liberalism
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Adam Smith (1732-90)in the Wealth of Nations 1776 opposed mercantilism dominant
in C16 and C17 which encouraged government intervention in economic life to
encourage exports and restrict imports. He was heavily influenced by liberal
rationalist assumptions about human nature.
Smith argued that markets operate according to wishes and decisions of free
individuals. People should be free to choose what goods to make, workers their
employer, consumers what goods to buy. Relations within the market are voluntary
and contractual made by self interested individuals. It draws on utilitarian theory of
pleasure motivation by fact that humans driven by personal material acquisition.
Although each individual materially self interested, economy operated by market
forces which are impersonal and tend naturally to promote economic prosperity and
well being. The forces of supply and demand. The market is a self regulating
mechanism which should be free from government interference managed by
‘invisible hand'. Unemployment occurs because excess labour supply- market forces
pushes down price of labour and employers can recruit more workers.
Laissez faire theories remained strong in the UK and USA throughout much of C19.
In late C20 faith in free market revived through rise of neoliberalism.
Social Darwinism
• Those with ability and willingness to work will prosper and lazy will
not. Samuel Smiles Self-Help (1859) Heaven helps those who
help themselves. Richard Cobden (1804-65) said an improvement
in conditions of working classes should come through their own
efforts and self reliance.
• Ideas of individual self reliance reached boldest expression Herbert
Spencer (1820-1904) The Man Versus the State (1884), drawing on
Darwin’s (1809-92)The Origin of Species (1859) Spencer argued a
process of natural selection applied to humans- survival of the fittest.
Inequality in terms of wealth social position and social power are
natural and government should not refrain. Influenced by Spencer
was the American William Sumner (1840-1910) the drunkard in the
gutter is just where he ought to be.
Neoliberalism/neoclassical
liberalism
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A revival of economic liberalism in the 1970s. Aims to halt/reverse trend towrds big government
and state intervention of C20. Greatest impact USA (Reaganomics) and UK (Thatcherism). It
was influenced by globalisation and is an attempt to fuse laissez faire economics with a
conservative social philosophy.
A form of market fundamentalism- market is seen as morally and practically superior to
government. Unlike Adam Smith who recognised the limitations of the market, neolibs emphasise
the failings of government. Hayek in 1944 argued that state economic intervention and regulation
was inefficient and any state economic intervention was the most serious threat to liberty and
creeping totalitarianism. Milton Friedman in 1962 critical of Keynesianism on grounds tax and
spend policies fuel inflation by encourage governments to borrow.
As human beings are rationally self interested government officials will use their position to further
their own ends not those of the public (view of public choice theorists). Big government not
response to democratic pressure or attempt to correct imbalances of capitalism but consequence
of career self interest public servants..
In contrast, Friedman argued that markets are self regulating, naturally efficient and productive. At
macro economic level, resources drawn to their most profitable use as rich and poor incentive to
work. At Micro level private businesses are more efficient than public bodies because disciplined
by profit motive. Markets are more responsive democratic criticisms because everyone has the
ability to rise/fall based on talent and hard work, it assures producers only produce what consumer
wants to buy at a price affordable. Material inequality reflects natural inequality amongst
humankind.
Neolib economics driven by impact globalisation. The rise of interlocking economies The rise of
the market in place of the nation state. Globalisation reach apogee 1990s with massive
restructuring of economies e.g. post communist states.
Modern Liberalism/C20 liberalism
• Industrialisation accompanied not only by wealth
creation but slums, poverty, ignorance, disease.
• Social inequality increasingly difficult to ignore
with growing working class disadvantaged by
low pay, unemployment and living/working
conditions. Harder to claim that industrial
capitalism brought general liberty and prosperity.
• The minimal state of the classical liberals quite
incapable rectifying injustices/inequalities.
• Classical liberalism characterised by theoretical
consistency, modern liberalism a marriage
between new and old liberalism.
Individuality
• JS Mill influenced by European romanticism felt Benthamite view of
humans purely as utility maximisers as too narrow/shallow.. In On
Liberty, Mill argued that liberty was a positive and constructive force
as it gave individuals ability to take control of their own lives to gain
autonomy and achieve self realisation.
• Critical of Bentham view that actions can only be distinguished by
quantity of pleasure/pain, he said there were higher and lower
pleasures and was keen to promote those pleasures which develop
an individual’s intellectual, moral or aesthetic sensibilities- rather
than mere pleasure seeking he concerned with personal self
development.
• However, he did not think the state should step in because like
Tocqueville he feared the spread of conformism. An advocate of
spread of education as best ways by which individuals could gain
fulfilment, he feared state education would mean everyone with
same views and beliefs.
Positive Freedom
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T.H Green (1836-82) influenced L T Hobhouse (1864-1929) and J A Hobson (1854-1940). Green
believed that unrestrained pursuit of profit led to new forms of poverty and injustice – economic
liberty of the few blighted the life chances of the many. Individuals according to Green have
empathy and capable of altruism,, possessing social not just individual responsibility. Green’s
ideas influenced by socialist idea on cooperative nature of man and ideas are described as
socialist liberalism.
According to Green negative freedom removes external constraints on individual giving freedom of
choice e.g. an employer can choose to employ children rather than adults, women not men.
Economic freedom can lead to exploitation. Contracts are not made by free/equal individualsworkers coerced into accept employment over poverty and starvation whereas employers choose
whom wish to employ.
In place of negative freedom, Green propose positive freedom- ability of individual to develop and
attain individuality- ability to realise potential- unrestrained capitalism does not give each
individual freedom to realise potential- working class held back by poverty, sickness,
unemployment, ignorance.
If market society does not provide individuals equal opportunities then government must step in.
Green argued the state was invested with a social responsibility for all its citizens – modern
liberals see the state as an enabling state with range of social and economic responsibilities..
However Green and modern liberals had not abandoned core liberalism. The state cannot force
people to be good only provide conditions in which they can make responsible moral decisions.
Underlying commitment to needs and interests remains. Prefer self reliant individuals who take
responsibility for lives although latter only possible if social conditions conducive. Modern
liberalism central thrust is to help individuals to help themselves.
Social liberalism
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Development of welfare state in C20. A welfare state is a state that takes primary
responsibility for social welfare of its citizens via social security, health, education et
al…
Reasons
National efficiency- to achieve healthy work forces and stronger armies.
Pressure from newly enfranchised industrial workers/peasants.
Not linked to any particular ideology.
Modern liberals defend welfarism on basis opportunity.
Course of C20 liberal parties and governments converted to cause of social welfare
e.g. UK Beveridge Report which set out attack five giants- want, disease, ignorance,
squalor, idleness. USA liberal welfarism developed 1930s and reach a peak 1960s.
Influence of social democratic liberalism- John Rawls. A Theory of Justice (1970)
redistribution and welfare defensible on ‘equality as fairness’. The desire to avoid
poverty is greater than attraction of riches. Rawls proposed the ‘difference principle’
where social and economic inequalities be arranged to benefit least well off but some
measure of inequality necessary to provide incentive to work. I remains liberal not
socialist as it is rooted in assumptions about egoism and self interest rather than
belief in social solidarity.
Economic management
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In addition to provide social welfare modern governments sought to deliver prosperity
by managing economy. Abandon laissez faire as result apparent inability industrial
capitalism to guarantee general prosperity. A dramatic demonstration failure free
market came as result Wall Street crash and Great Depression.
Post WW2 virtually all western states adopt policies economic intervention to prevent
return pre war unemployment levels.
JM Keynes (1883-1946) In General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money
(1936) challenge classical view of self regulating market. Governments could
manage economy by influencing level of aggregate demand. Spending is an injection
of demand – a budget deficit whereby government deliberately overspends whereas
taxation is withdrawal.
Keynes argued that unrestrained private enterprise is unworkable in complex
industrial societies. First used in New Deal, by end WW2 Keynesianism economic
orthodoxy in west and credited with long boom 1950s/60s.
1970s re emergence economic difficulties led to shift away but failure free market
revolution 1980s/90s to ensure sustained economic growth result emergence ‘new’
political economy or neo Keynesianism a remewed awareness of fact unregualted
capitalism tends to bring low investment, short termism and social fragmentation.
C21 liberal triumph
• A wave of democratisation in post communist states and
reign of the ‘liberal peace’ in post cold war international
relations.
• As societies more complex and diverse, political stability
requires existence of sophisticated channels
communication between govt and people, only a liberal
system can provide. Rule based governance, regular
and competitive elections, freedom association allow
political process to be responsive to societal pressures
from a variety directions.
• Economic globalisation as driven by market forces a
globalised C21 will coincide with establishment global
liberalism…
Challenges to liberal triumph
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Is the defeat of socialism final?
Tendency within capitalism towrds inequality means opposition to liberal capitalism will always
emerge..
Growing recognition growing importance of difference and diversity challenges universalist
assumptions liberalism. Communitarian writers have rejected individualism as facile on grounds it
suggests the self is ‘unencumbered’. Multiculturalists advance a collective notion of identity
based on culture, ethnicity, language, religion…
Postmodernists have challenged the whole Enlightenment project upon which liberalism based.
The project was built on assumption that a set of universally applicable rational principles can lay
down conditions that allow individuals to pursue incommensurable ends. Post modern thinkers
such as Richard Rorty questioned idea of objective truth liberalism as with all ideologies and
belief systems is a ‘vocabulary’ that cannot be observed as more accurate than any other
vocabulary.
Resurgent nationalism in Eastern Europe commonly associated with ethnic purity and
authoritarianism than with liberal ideals of self determination and civic pride.
Various forms of fundamentalism at odds with liberal culture Middle east, parts of Africa, Asia..
Rise of political Islam may prevail in developing world because offers non/anti western stance.
Successful market economies not always founded on basis liberal values and institutions. Political
regimes east Asia owe more to Confucianism’s ability to maintain social stability in place liberal
ideas competition and self striving.