Chapter – 1
System Analysis Fundamentals
Contents
Types of Systems
Role of the System Analyst
Systems Development Life Cycle
CASE Tools
Interviewing
Joint Application Development
Using Questionnaires

Introduction
System
An organized relationship among the functioning units or components, which work
in synchronization to achieve a common goal.
System Study
A study of operations of a set of connected elements and the inter connections
between these elements. It clearly shows that no one can ignore an element while
doing a system study.
System Approach
Shows a set of procedure to solve a particular problem, It applies scientific
methods to understand the inter relationship between the elements to solve the
problem.
System analysis
It is a management exercise, which helps us in designing a new system or
improving the existing system.
Characteristics of a System
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Organization: It says the Structure or order of built.
Interaction: Procedure in which the components interact.
Interdependence.
Integration
Central Objective
Why are there different types of Information System?
In the early days of computing, each time an information system
was needed it was 'tailor made' - built as a one-off solution for a
particular problem. However, it soon became apparent that many
of the problems information systems set out to solve shared
certain characteristics. Consequently, people attempted to try to
build a single system that would solve a whole range of similar
problems. However, they soon realized that in order to do this, it
was first necessary to be able to define how and where the
information system would be used and why it was needed. It was
then that the search for a way to classify information systems
accurately began.
How do you identify the different types of information
system in an organization?
The different types of information system that can be found are
identified through a process of classification. Classification is
simply a method by which things can be categorized or classified
together so that they can be treated as if they were a single unit.
The classification of information systems into different types is a
useful technique for designing systems and discussing their
application; it not however a fixed definition governed by some
natural law. A 'type' or category of information system is simply
a concept, an abstraction, which has been created as a way to
simplify a complex problem through identifying areas of
commonality between different things. One of the oldest and
most widely used systems for classifying information systems is
known as the pyramid model.
How many different kinds of Information System are
there?
Depending on how you create your classification, you can find
almost any number of different types of information system.
However, it is important to remember that different kinds of
systems found in organizations exist to deal with the particular
problems and tasks that are found in organizations. Consequently,
most attempts to classify Information systems into different types
rely on the way in which task and responsibilities are divided
within an organization. As most organizations are hierarchical,
the way in which the different classes of information systems are
categorized tends to follow the hierarchy. This is often described
as "the pyramid model" because the way in which the systems are
arranged mirrors the nature of the tasks found at various different
levels in the organization.
For example, this is a three level pyramid model based on the
type of decisions taken at different levels in the organization.
Figure – 1.1
Three level pyramid model based on the type of decisions taken at different
levels in the organization
Figure – 1.2
Five level pyramid model based on the processing requirement of
different levels in the organization
A comparison of different kinds
of Information Systems
Transaction Processing System (TPS) supports day to-day
operations. Examples of TPS are order-entry systems, cheque
processing systems, accounts receivable systems, accounts
payable systems, payroll systems and ticket reservation systems.
These systems help any company (organization) to conduct
operations and keep track of its activities. TPS was first
developed in the 1950s in accounting department of major
corporations. It is the oldest type of information system.
Transaction Processing System (TPS) consist of all the
components of a Computerized Business Information
System) CBIS, which includes databases, people,
procedure,
software,
hardware,
devices
and
telecommunication used to process transaction.
TPS were among the earliest computerized systems.
Their primary purpose is to record, process, validate,
and store transactions that take place in the various
functional areas/of a business for future retrieval and
use. A TPS is an information system that records
company transactions (a transaction is defined as an
exchange between two or more business entities).
Functions of a TPS
TPS are ultimately little more than simple data processing
systems. Functions of a TPS in terms of data processing
requirements
Inputs
Transactions
Events
Processing
Validation
Sorting
Listing
Merging
Updating
Calculation
Outputs
Lists
Detail reports
Action reports
Summary reports?
Table - 1.1 (Data processing requirement for TPS)
Some examples of TPS
 Payroll systems
 Order processing systems
 Reservation systems
 Stock control systems
 Systems for payments and funds transfers
The role of TPS
 Produce information for other systems
 Cross boundaries (internal and external)
 Used by operational personnel and supervisory levels
 Efficiency oriented
Office automation systems and knowledge work
systems (OAS and KWS)
This system comes under the knowledge level, and the
knowledge level organization divides two classes of
the system. First one is OAS which supports data
workers, who will not create knowledge but make
analysis of information, manipulation of information
and transformation of information. The important
aspects of OAS are communication through voice mail,
word processing, spreadsheet, desktop publishing and
video conferencing. And second one is KWS which
support professional workers who are doctor,
engineers, scientist etc, who create the knowledge by
their own.
Management Information Systems
The MIS is defined as a Computer based Information System.
The MIS is defined as a system which provides information
support for decision making in the organization. A collection
of subsystems and related programme parts or modules that
are interconnected in a manner which fulfils the information
requirements necessary to plan, organise, direct and control
business activities.
The MIS is defined as a system based on the database of the
organization developed with the purpose of providing
information to the people in the organization.
MIS is an Information System which is used to transform
data into useful information as needed to support
management decision making which is based on the
predictable pattern of activities.
Functions of a MIS
MIS are built on the data provided by the TPS. Functions of a
MIS in terms of data processing requirements.
Inputs
Internal
Transactions
Internal Files
Structured data
Processing
Sorting
Merging
Summarizing
Outputs
Summary reports
Action reports
Detailed reports
Table - 1.2 (Data processing requirement for MIS)
Some examples of MIS
Sales management systems
Inventory control systems
Budgeting systems
Management Reporting Systems (MRS)
Personnel (HRM) systems
The role of MIS
Based on internal information flows
Support relatively structured decisions
Inflexible and have little analytical capacity
Used by lower and middle managerial levels
Deals with the past and present rather than the future
Efficiency oriented
Decision Support Systems
DSS is an interactive computer based system which facilitates
the solution of unstructured problems. DSS are interactive,
computer based facilities for assisting human decision
making. DSS supports complex decision making and
increases its effectiveness.
A Decision Support System can be seen as knowledge based
system, used by senior managers, which facilitates the
creation of knowledge and allow its integration into the
organization. These systems are often used to analyze existing
structured information and allow managers to project the
potential effects of their decisions into the future.
Such systems are usually interactive and are used to
solve ill structured problems. They offer access to
databases, analytical tools, allow "what if" simulations,
and may support the exchange of information within
the organization.
Functions of a DSS
DSS manipulate and build upon the information from a
MIS and/or TPS to generate insights and new
information. Functions of a DSS in terms of data
processing requirements.
Inputs
Internal
Transactions
Internal Files
External
Information
Processing
Modeling
Simulation
Analysis
Summarizing
Outputs
Summary reports
Forecasts
Graphs / Plots
Table - 1.3 (Data processing requirement for DSS)
Some examples of DSS
Group Decision Support Systems (GDSS)
Computer Supported Co-operative work (CSCW)
Logistics systems
Financial Planning systems
Spreadsheet Models
The role of DSS
Support ill- structured or semi-structured decisions
Have analytical and/or modeling capacity
Used by more senior managerial levels
Are concerned with predicting the future
Is effectiveness oriented
Executive Information Systems
ESS is management information systems tailored to meet the
strategic information needs of top managements/senior
executives. It summarizes and presents data at the highest
levels of aggregation.
The goal of computer based ESS is to provide top executives
with immediate and easy access to selective information.
Graphic displays are used extensively and immediate access to
internal and external databases is provided.
ESS combines features of information reporting systems and
DSS.
Executive Information Systems are strategic-level
information systems that are found at the top of the
Pyramid. They help executives and senior managers
analyze the environment in which the organization
operates, to identify long-term trends, and to plan
appropriate courses of action. The information in such
systems is often weakly structured and comes from
both internal and external sources. Executive
Information System are designed to be operated
directly by executives without the need for
intermediaries and easily tailored to the preferences
of the individual using them.
.
Functions of an EIS
EIS organizes and presents data and information from
both external data sources and internal MIS or TPS in
order to support and extend the inherent capabilities
of senior executives.
Inputs
Processing
External Data
Summarizing
Internal Files
Simulation
Pre-defined models "Drilling Down"
Outputs
Summary reports
Forecasts
Graphs / Plots
Table - 1.4 (Data processing
requirement for ESS)
Some examples of EIS
Executive Information Systems tend to be highly individualized
and are often custom made for a particular client group;
however, a number of off-the-shelf EIS packages do exist and
many enterprise level systems offer a customizable EIS module.
The role of EIS
Are concerned with ease of use
Are concerned with predicting the future
Are effectiveness oriented
Are highly flexible
Support unstructured decisions
Use internal and external data sources
Used only at the most senior management levels
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These expert systems have proven to be quite
successful. Most applications of expert systems will
fall into one of the following categories:
Interpreting and identifying
Predicting
Diagnosing
Designing
Planning
Monitoring
Debugging and testing
Instructing and training
Controlling
Benefits of Expert Systems
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Increase the probability, frequency, and consistency of making
good decisions
Help distribute human expertise
Facilitate real-time, low-cost expert-level decisions by the
non expert
Enhance the utilization of most of the available data
Permit objectivity by weighing evidence without bias and
without regard for the user’s personal and emotional
reactions
Permit dynamism through modularity of structure
Free up the mind and time of the human expert to enable
him or her to concentrate on more creative activities
Encourage investigations into the subtle areas of a problem
Artificial Intelligence
There are many definitions of AI. The basic objective of AI
is to represent humans' thought processes in computers. These
machines are supposed to exhibit behavior that, if performed by
a human being, would be considered intelligent. An alternate
definition, not covered in the text is by Astro Teller: "Artificial
intelligence (AI) is the science of how to get machines to do the
things they do in the movies." On the other hand Wallace
Marshal states that "Artificial stupidity (AS) may be defined as
the attempt by computer scientists to create computer
programs capable of causing problems of a type normally
associated with human thought."
Artificial Intelligence can be considered as a
science and technology whose goal is to
develop computers that can think, see, hear,
walk, talk and feel. A major thrust is the
development of computer functions normally
associated with human intelligence for example
reasoning, inference learning and problem
solving. Major areas of AI research and
development
include
cognitive
science,
computer science, and robotics and natural
language applications.
List the major AI technologies.
Expert systems, natural language processing,
robotics, speech understanding, speech (voice)
recognition, computer vision and scene recognition,
intelligent
computer-aided
instruction,
neural
computing, intelligent agents, automatic programming,
translation of languages, and summarizing news can all
be considered AI technologies. The major technologies
are expert systems, neural networks, intelligent agents,
fuzzy logic, and genetic algorithms.
System Analyst
A system analyst is the person responsible for the
development of software and hardware solutions for the
efficient working of an organization. Analysts study the
environment and problems of an organization to
determine whether a new system can provide solutions
to the problems. The main job of a system analyst is to
provide right type of information, in right quantity at
the right time in a cost effective manner to the
management or the end user for successful running of
an organization.
Role of a System Analyst
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Defining
IT
requirements
of
the
organization – role of consultant.
Setting priorities among requirements
Gathering data or facts
Analyzing and Evaluation
Problem solving – role of problem solver
Drawing specifications
Designing system – role of architects
Evaluating system – role of evaluator
System analyst as an agent of change
System analyst as a technician
.
Role of a System Analyst
System analyst plays an important role which is described in the following
sections:
1. Defining IT requirements of the organization – role of
consultant
One of the most important and difficult task of an analyst is to understand the
organization’s requirements for information. It involves interviewing users and
finding out what information they use in the current system and how they use it.
They are then asked what information they lack. In case, it is provided, how will
that allow them to do their job better. Then, the analyst has to determine how such
information can be generated, from the available inputs, or if some other inputs
are to be collected.
2. Setting priorities among requirements
In any organization, there are many types of users. Each user has different types
of information needs. It may not be possible to satisfy the requirements of every
one, due to limited availability of resources. So, it would be necessary to give
priority to them. The priorities are to be set based on the urgency and importance
of the user’s need.
3. Gathering data or facts
For gathering data or facts, written documents are important because these
documents represent the formal information flow in the system. The analyst
studies documents such as input forms, output reports, invoices etc., to
understand how data are passed and used in the present system. Analyst
may consult the users for the existing reporting system for getting more
information. Moreover, users must be made aware of what information they
will get under new system and how they will make use of it. The analyst
designing the new system must make use of the user’s long experience.
While developing or designing a system, the analyst must continuously
consult users and get their views, on various aspects of the system
developments.
4. Analyzing and Evaluation
After gathering facts, an analyst analyzes the working of the current system
in an organization and finds out to what extent it meets user’s needs. The
analyst tries to find the best characteristics of a new or modified system.
.
5. Problem solving – role of problem solver
System analyst helps IT users to solve their information problems. In that
role, analyst must understand the problems and suggest solutions. The
relative difficulties in implementing each of the alternatives and benefits of
each must be determined so that the best solution may be selected.
6. Drawing specifications
Main job of an analyst is to obtain the input and outputs (specification) for
optimal functioning of a system yet to be developed. The system should be
easily understood by users and make up benefits for the organization as a
whole. The specifications must be non-technical as far as possible, so that the
users and managers can understand them well. The specification should be
precise and clear for easy implementation.
7. Designing system – role of architects
Once specifications are accepted by the management, an analyst gets on to
the design of the system. The design must be modular to accommodate
changes easily. The analyst must be aware of the latest design tools for
system design. As part of the design, he should create a test plan for the
system. System analysts are also called architects because they design and
.
implement new systems.
8. Evaluating system – role of evaluator
An analyst must critically test the performance of the designed system with
specifications after it has been in use for a reasonable period of time. The time at
which evaluation is to be done, how implementation is to be done, and how user’s
comments are to be gathered. Analyst should have an open mind to accept valid
criticism to carry out necessary improvements.
9. System analyst as an agent of change
An analyst may be viewed as an agent of change, because analyst works towards the
future of the organization which needs to change. Agent of change means a person
who allows making change in decision for the development in the business. Agent of
change is interacting with the user as well as the management to take a strong decision
for devolving the plans.
10. System analyst as a technician
System analyst works as a technician, because they have knowledge and skill in areas
such as design, programming, data organization and so on.
System Development Life Cycle (SDLC)
Software systems development is, from a historical perspective,
a very young profession.
The first official programmer is probably Grace Hopper,
working for the Navy in the mid-1940s. More realistically,
commercial applications development did not really take off
until the early 1960s. These initial efforts are marked by a
craftsman-like approach based on what intuitively felt right.
Unfortunately, too many programmers had poor intuition.
By the late 1960s it had become apparent that a more
disciplined approach was required.
The software engineering techniques started coming into being.
This finally brings us to the SDLC.
The entire process of building, deploying, using and updating the
an information system is called the system development life
cycle (SDLC).
The basic idea of SDLC is that, it provides a well defined
process by which a system is conceived, developed and
implemented.
SLDC is categorized in two approaches:
(1)
Predictive approach
(2)
Adaptive(alter) approach
An SDLC has three primary business objectives:
Ensure the delivery of high quality systems;
Provide strong management controls;
Maximize productivity.
SDLC Requirements
The requirements for the SDLC fall into five major
categories:
 Scope
 Technical Activities
 Management Activities
 Usability
 Installation Guidance
Scope Requirements
The SDLC must be able to support various project
types, project sizes and system types.
Technical Activities
The technical activities fall into a number of major
categories:
System Definition (Analysis, Design, Coding)
Testing
System Installation (e.g., Data Conversion, Training)
Production Support (e.g., Problem Management)
Evaluating Alternatives
Figure – 1.3 SDLC
SDLC stages
1.
Identifying
problems,
opportunities
objectives (Preliminary investigation)
2.
Determining information requirements
3.
Feasibility Study
4.
Analyzing system needs
5.
Designing recommended system
6.
Developing and documentation of software
7.
System testing
8.
Implementation and evaluation
9.
Maintenance
and
1. Identifying problems, opportunities and
objectives (Preliminary investigation)
This is the initial stage of SDLC, in which analyst is concerned with
identifying problems, requirements and objectives. Problem definition states
the user requirements, or what the user expects out of the new system. This
phase sets the project boundaries. It defines what parts of the system can be
changes by the project and what parts of the new system are to remain without
any change. This definition also includes a rough idea of the resource
requirements for the project as well as the estimated start and completion time
for each phase as well as the number of persons expected to be involved in
each phase. In SDLC, problem identification helps in:
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Pinpointing the problems
Setting proper system goals.
Determining the boundaries of the project by taking into
consideration the limitations of the available resources.
2. Determining information requirements
The next stage is information requirement; in this stage
only users are involved because requirements can be
collected from the users only. The information
collection related to requirements can be done by using
interactions with the user, by using any fact finding
techniques like interviews, questionnaires so on. In the
information requirement stage of SDLC, the analyst is
needed to understand what kind of information is
needed to user to execute their task.
3. Feasibility Study
Feasibility study for a system is undertaken to
determine the possibility of either improving the
existing system or developing a completely new
system. This study helps to obtain overview of the
problem and to get rough assessment of whether a
feasible solution already exists. The purpose of
feasibility study is to determine whether the requested
project is successfully realizable. There are three
aspects of feasibility study. These are:
Technical feasibility
Economic feasibility
Operational feasibility
Technical feasibility
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Technical feasibility centers on the required/existing computer system
(hardware/software) and to what extent it can support the proposed
application. This study answers the following questions:
Whether the project can be carried out with the existing equipment?
Whether the existing project is good enough?
Can the work be done with the existing personnel?
If a new technology is required, how best can it be implemented?
In short, technical feasibility needs to specifying equipment and software
that will successfully support the new task.
Economic feasibility
Economic feasibility study is frequently used for
evaluating the effectiveness of a new system. Cost
benefit analysis is performed to determine the benefits
and savings that are expected from the new system
and thus compare them with costs. This study
ascertains the following:
Whether the project is economically feasible?
If enough funds are not available, then what are likely
sources of funds?
Whether there is sufficient number of benefits as
compared to the costs incurred in designing of the
new system.
Operational feasibility
covers two aspects – (a) one is a technical performance
aspect and the other is acceptance of the system within the organization.
Technical performance includes issues such as determining whether the system can
provide the right information for the organization’s personnel, and whether the
system can be organized so that it always delivers the information at the right place
and right time.
Operational feasibility must determine how the proposed system will fit in with the
current operations and what, if any, job reconstruction and re-training will be needed
to implement the system.
The analyst should determine:
Whether the system can be used if it is developed and implemented?
Will there be resistance from users that will cripple the possible application benefit?
4. Analyzing system needs
The next stage is analyzing system needs, the different
tools and the techniques are used during analyzing the
system needs. One of the important tools is data flow
diagram. The data flow diagrams are used to get input
and output in the graphical way. Further, data
dictionary is created from DFD which is a repository
of system data which consists of data items and their
different specifications. During this stage, analyst can
also make use of different structured tools available
like decision table, decision tree and structure English.
5. Designing recommended system
In this stage system analyst collects all analyzed information from previous
stages and build one logical design of information system. The purpose of this
logical design is to allow analyst and user to see something concrete. This
logical design shows the analyst and user how the system will look like. This
design also include the physical design elements, describes the data to be
inputted, the processes involved in the manipulation of data and the output.
This system design phase includes the following steps:
The analyst should specify the file structures, storage devices and so on.
The database is also designed in this phase.
Input, output, files, forms and procedures are planned and designed.
Finally,
standards for testing, documentation and system control are
formulated.

6. Developing and documentation of software
Development is the phase where detailed design is used to
actually construct and build the system. In this phase, the system
is actually programmed. Now, the analyst should decide whether
to buy commercial software or to develop new customized
programs with the help of programmers. The choice depends on
the cost of the software and the cost of programming such
software. In large organization the work is entrusted to
programmers, whereas in small organizations, the job is assigned
to outside organizations.
Programmers are also responsible for documenting the
programs. The documents should include comments that provide
explanation of the procedures coded in the programs.
7. System testing
Testing is the process of making sure that the programs
perform the intended tasks. Once the system is
designed, it should be tested for validity. During system
testing, the system is used experimentally to ensure that
the software does not fail, i.e. it will run according to
its specification and in the way users expect it to.
The system is tested with special test data and the
results are examined for their validity. Some of the
users may be permitted to operate on the system so that
the analyst can ascertain that the system can work in
the specified environment.
8. Implementation and evaluation
Implementation is the final phase of development. It consists of
installing hardware, programs, collecting data and organizing
people to interact with and run the system. In the implementation
phase, user actually starts using the system. This phase therefore
involves training the users for using the system and also
providing them friendly documentation to refer to.
Implementation can be done in two ways. One way is to by
implementing the new system along with the old system and
makes them run in parallel. The other method is to replace the
entire system.
Evaluation is the process of verifying the capability of a system,
after it is put in operation, to see whether it is meeting the
required objectives or not.
9. Maintenance
Maintenance is the process of incorporating changes in
the implemented existing system for proper utilization.
This involves enhancement, adaptation and correction.
Enhancement implies adding new functions or
additional capabilities to the system.

Adaptation implies customizing the software to run in
the new environment.
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Correction implies correcting the bugs in the existing
software.
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WHAT ARE CASE TOOLS?
Computer Aided Software Engineering (CASE) tools are gradually becoming popular
for the development of software as they are improving in the capabilities and
functionalities and are proving to be beneficial for the development of quality
software.
Computer-Aided Software Engineering (CASE) is the integration of software-based
modelling tools into the software development process. Analysis and design
methodologies and modelling notations were developed to formalize the software
engineering process; CASE tools automate that process by assisting in each step.
Some types of CASE tools are analysis and design tools, automated code generation
tools, and software testing tools. Analysis and design tools aid in the creation of
diagrams and project documentation. Automated code generation assists in the
implementation phases.
Testing tools lead to a more thorough evaluation of an application.
CASE tools are the software engineering tools that permit collaborative software
development and maintenance. CASE tools support almost all the phases of the
software development life cycle such as analysis, design, etc., including umbrella
activities such as project management, configuration management etc. The CASE
tools in general, support standard software development methods such as Structure
programming or structured system analysis and design method. The CASE tools
follow a typical process for the development of the system, for example, for
developing data base application, CASE tools may support the following
development steps:
Table 1.5 – CASE Tools Time Line
Creation of data flow and entity models
Establishing a relationship between requirements and
models
Development of top-level design
Development of functional and process description
Development of test cases.
The CASE tools on the basis of the above specifications can help in automatically
generating data base tables, forms and reports, and user documentation.
Thus, the CASE tools –
Support contemporary(modern/current) development of software systems, they may
improve the quality of the software
Help in automating the software development life cycles by use of certain standard
methods
Create an organisation wide environment that minimizes repetitive work
Help developers to concentrate more on top level and more creative problem-solving
tasks
Support
and improve the quality of documentation (Completeness and nonambiguity), testing process (provides automated checking), project management and
software maintenance.

Most of the CASE tools include one or more of the
following types of tools:
Analysis tools
Repository to store all diagrams, forms, models
and report definitions etc.
Diagramming tools
Screen and report generators
Code generators
Documentation generators
Reverse Engineering tools (that take source code as
input and produce graphical and textual
representations
of
program
design-level
information)
.
Re-engineering tools (that take source code as the
Figure – 1.4 CASE Tools Environment
.
Categories of CASE Tools
On the basis of their activities, sometimes CASE tools are classified into the following
categories:
1. Upper CASE tools
2. Lower CASE tools
3. Integrated CASE tools.
Upper CASE
Upper CASE tools mainly focus on the analysis and design phases of software
development. They include tools for analysis modeling, reports and forms generation.
Lower CASE
Lower CASE tools support implementation of system development. They include
tools for coding, configuration management, etc.
Integrated CASE Tools:
Integrated CASE tools help in providing linkages between the lower and upper CASE
tools. Thus creating a cohesive environment for software development where
programming by lower CASE tools may automatically be generated for the design that
has been developed in an upper CASE tool.
.
Characteristics of successful CASE Tools
A CASE tool must have the following
characteristics in order to be used efficiently:
A standard methodology: A CASE tool must
support a standard software development
methodology
and
standard
modeling
techniques. In the present scenario most of the
CASE tools are moving towards UML.
Flexibility: Flexibility in use of editors and
other tools. The CASE tool must offer
.
flexibility and the choice for the user of
Need of CASE Tools
Reduce the cost as they automate many repetitive manual tasks.
Reduce development time of the project as they support standardisation and avoid
repetition and reuse.
Develop better quality complex projects as they provide greater consistency and
coordination.
Create good quality documentation
Create systems that are maintainable because of proper control of configuration item
that support traceability requirements.
But please note that CASE tools cannot do the following:
 Automatic development of functionally relevant system
 Force system analysts to follow a prescribed methodology
 Change the system analysis and design process.

.
There are certain disadvantages of CASE tools. These
are:
Complex functionality
Many project management problems are not amenable
to automation. Hence, CASE tools cannot be used in
such cases.
Cost
Many tools are costly and most companies are
unwilling to implement these CASE tools by the fact
that it increases the overall cost of the project. And
second thing if a company does not get any extra by
using CASE tools then why should they use CASE
tools, which are expensive for it in the end.
.
Time Limitation
There is always a time limit for every software project for development. Most of
developers do not adopt CASE because it requires a lot of time to train developers and
perform all CASE activities and there are always deadlines to complete the project.
You have to meet deadlines of the company but if you use CASE tools you cannot
finish your project on time, which is also a factor in less use of CASE tools.
Training
Training is a big concern while any company going to use a new tool, which is quite
costly procedure. They have to train there developer for the efficient use of that
particular tool. Most of the companies avoid using CASE tools because of this fact
that they would have to train a large number of staff and it is expensive and as well as
time consuming.
.
Interview
Interviews are a fact finding techniques where the
system analyst acts as an interviewer, who collects facts
from individuals (interviewees). The interviewees are
generally current users of the existing system or
potential users of the proposed system. The respondents
may be managers or employees who provide data for
the proposed system or those who will be affected by it.
Interviews are formal meetings, where the analyst can
obtain information about the operations of the present
system and requirements of any planned systemreplacements.
.
Merits
1) This method of fact finding would be helpful for
gathering information from individuals who can not
communicate effectively in writing.
2) Interviews allow the analyst to discover areas of
misunderstanding, unrealistic expectations, and even
indications of resistance to the proposed system.
3) Interviews are the best source of qualitative
information (opinions, policies, descriptions of
activities and problems).
4) Interviews give the analyst an opportunity to
motivate the interviewee to respond freely and openly
to questions.
.
Demerits
1) Interviewing is very time consuming and costly
fact finding techniques.
2) Success of interviews is mostly dependent on the
system analyst’s human relations skills.
3) Interviewing may not give good results if proper
environment is not available for conduction interview.
.
Types of Interviews
There are two types of interviews. These are:
1) Unstructured
2) Structured
Unstructured Interviews
Unstructured interviews are an approach in which the questions and the corresponding
responses are open ended. The interviewer can ask questions which may not be
directly related to the system under consideration.
Unstructured interviews are conducted with only a general goal or subject in mind,
with few specific questions. Unstructured interview may not work well for system
analysis and design, because in this type, interviewee frequently gets off the track, and
the analyst must be prepared to redirect the interviewee back to the main goal or
subject.
.
Structured Interviews
In structured interviews, the interviewer has a
specific set of questions to ask from the
interviewee. All these questions are prepared in
advance and the answers are noted. A structured
interview has the following advantages:
1) Structured interviews ensure uniform wording of
questions for all respondents.
2) It is also easy to administrate as well as to
evaluate the answers.
3) In structured interview, limited training for the
interviewer is needed, hence its result in completing
.
the job in much shorter time. However,
the cost of
It is type of interview that poses questions that may require a specific or a brief
response. Open questions are general questions that establish a person’s view point on
a particular subject. For example the question may be:
“In what way is the report generated by existing system is relevant to your activity?”
There are several advantages of using open ended questions, they are as follows:
1) Putting the interviewees at ease.
2) Providing the richness of detail.
3) Makes the interview more interesting.
There are several drawbacks of this type of questions, they are:
1) Allows a response which may contain too much time.
2) Possibly losing control of the interview.
3) There is too much irrelevant detail for asking questions.
.
Closed ended poses questions in which the responses is/are presented as a set of
alternatives. Close ended questions are more specific and usually require a specific
answer. For example, a close ended question may be:
“Where do the entry of this form resides?”
A question that requires a direct answer to a question is called close ended questions.
The benefits of closed ended questions are as follows:
1) It saves the time.
2) Easily comparing interviews.
3) Reaching to the point.
4) It controls the interview.
5) Reaching up to the relevant data.
There are several drawbacks of this type of questions, they are:
1) It being boring to the interviewee.
2) Falling to building rapport between interviewer and interviewee.
.
Planning the interview
Five steps in interview preparation
1) Read background material
It is possible to read and understand much information about the interviewees and
their organization. This material can be obtained by call to your contact person to ask
for corporate web sites, annual report and any publication.
2) Establishing interviewing objectives
The objective and purpose of interview should be clear. The purpose of the meeting
should be clearly explained to all participants so that relevant documents and
information can be supplied in advance.
3) Decide whom to interview
We should include the people at each and every level who will be affected by the
system. The organizational have some ideas about who should be interviewed.
.
4) Prepare the interviewee
Prepare the person for interviewed by informing him/her by mail or phone call, and
allow him/her to think about the interview. If you want to give the interview in detail
then you have to inform to that interviewee to think about their response, because
there are many objective which will to be fulfilled in the interview.
5) Decide on question types and structure
Well and proper questioning are the main heart of the interview. Prepare an
appropriate set of questions that should be answered during planned conversations.
.
Questions pitfalls
Before make wording the questions you are able
to correct the poor questions. The questions which
can ruin your data are called leading questions
and double barreled questions.
Avoiding leading questions
Leading questions leads the interviewee into
response that you want. After that response is
biased. For example, “you agree that your
manager is good at decision making?” You have
.
made it very unforgettable to disagree.
The
Arranging questions in a logical sequence
There are two ways of reasoning inductive and deductive and also third one which
is combination of both inductive and deductive.
1) Using pyramid structure
Inductive organization of interviewing questions can be having pyramid shape. By
using this form interviewer begins with detailed and then closed questions. The
interviewer expands the topics by allowing the open ended questions. Figure
shows the basic pyramid structure. The pyramid structure is used when
interviewer want to warm up the topic.
.
Pyramid structure
start with specific
question
Figure – 1. 5 Pyramid Structure
.
And end with
general question
2) Using the funnel structure
The second kind of structure is funnel structure in which deductive approach is used.
The interview is started with open ended questions and narrowing the possible
responses by using closed questions. Such kind of structure is responsible when
interviewee feel emotional about the topic and need freedom to express the emotions.
Figure shows funnel structure.
.
Funnel structure start with
general question
And end with specific
question
.
Figure 1.6 Funnel Structure
3) Using diamond structure
After combining two of the above structure, one results in diamond shape structure.
This structure entails beginning in very specific way; it starts with examining general
issues, and finally coming to a very specific conclusion. Here, interview begins with
very easy manner, closed question that provide warm up to the interview process. In
the middle of this interview, the interview is asked for opinions on broad topics that
obviously have no right answer. The diamond structure combines the strength of two
other approaches.
.
Begins with
specific question
Move towards
general
questions
Move towards
general
questions
.
Figure 1.7 Diamond Shaped Structure
Recording Interview
Recording of interview is one of the important aspects of interview. Either you can
make a report or you can make the notes with pen and paper.
Making an audio record
It is decided before the interview how you are going to record the interview. Tell your
interviewee that you would like to make the audio recording of the interview. The
audio recording is made with the tape. It will be listened to by you and by the other
group members and then destroy.
Audio recording has advantages and disadvantages. Advantages are as follows:
1) It provides complete and accurate record.
2) It allows better eye contact.
3) It allows reply of interview for other group members.
.
Disadvantages of audio record include the following:
1) The interviewer may possibly be nervous and less apt to record freely.
2) It is difficult to locate important passage on long tape.
3) The cost of data gathering is increased.
Note taking
Note taking useful when interviewee refuses the request to make an audio tape. Note
taking include following advantage:
1) It keeps interviewer alert.
2) It aids recall of important questions.
3) It helps to recall of important interview trends.
4) It shows interviewer interest in the interview.
.
The disadvantages of note taking include the following:
1) It losing vital eye contact between interviewer and interviewee.
2) Losing the train of the conversation.
3) Causing excessive attention to facts and too little attention to feeling and
opinions.
.
Joint Application Development
Joint Application Design (JAD) was developed by
Chuck Morris of IBM Raleigh and Tony Crawford of
IBM Toronto in the late 1970’s. In 1980 Crawford and
Morris taught JAD in Toronto and Crawford led several
workshops to prove the concept. The results were
encouraging and JAD became a well accepted approach
in many companies. In time, JAD developed and
gained general approval in the data processing industry.
Crawford defines JAD as an interactive systems design
concept involving discussion groups in a workshop
setting. Originally, JAD was designed to bring system
developers and users of varying backgrounds and
opinions together in a productive
and creative
.
environment. The meetings were a way of obtaining
Joint Application Design (JAD) can replace a series of interviews with the user
community. JAD is a technique that allows the analyst to accomplish requirements
analysis and design the user interface with the users in a group setting
When to Use JAD
Users are restless and want something new
The organizational culture supports joint problem-solving behaviors
Analysts forecast an increase in the number of ideas using JAD
Personnel may be absent from their jobs for the length of time required
.
Key participants
Executive Sponsor
The executive who charters the project, the system owner. They must be high enough
in the organization to be able to make decisions and provide the necessary strategy,
planning, and direction.
Subject Matter Experts
These are the business users, the IS professionals, and the outside experts that will be
needed for a successful workshop. This group is the backbone of the meeting; they
will drive the changes.
.
Facilitator/Session Leader
Chairs the meeting and directs traffic by keeping the group on the meeting agenda.
The facilitator is responsible for identifying those issues that can be solved as part of
the meeting and those which need to be assigned at the end of the meeting for followup investigation and resolution. The facilitator serves the participants and does not
contribute information to the meeting.
Scribe/Modeler/Recorder/Documentation Expert
Records and publish the proceedings of the meeting and does not contribute
information to the meeting.
Observers
Generally members of the application development team assigned to the project.
.
Benefits of JAD
Time is saved, compared with traditional interviewing
Rapid development of systems
Improved user ownership of the system
Creative idea production is improved
Easy integration of CASE tools into JAD workshops
improves session productivity and provides systems
analysts with discussed and ready to use models

.
Drawbacks of Using JAD
JAD requires a large block of time be available for all
session participants
If preparation is incomplete, the session may not go
very well
If the follow-up report is incomplete, the session may
not be successful
The organizational skills and culture may not be
conducive to a JAD session

.
Questionnaires
Questionnaires are special purpose documents that allow the analyst to collect
information and opinions from respondents. When it is impossible because of
time, distance or cost constraint, to interview all the desired people involved
in a system, then the analyst may consider the use of a questionnaire. A
questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions and
other prompts for the purpose of gathering information from respondents. In
other words, when information is gathered by requesting users to fill in a pre
defined form then these forms are called questionnaire.
Benefits
1) Data collected through questionnaires are relatively cheap, particularly
when there is a scattered group of users and operators.
2) Unlike the interview, which generally questions one person at a time, a
questionnaire can be administrated to larger numbers of individuals
simultaneously.
3) Responses from questionnaire can be tabulated and analyzed more quickly.
.
Drawbacks
1) The number of responses sent for the questionnaires is often
low.
2) All the questions given in the questionnaire may not be
answered completely. Moreover, there is no immediate
opportunity to clarify a vague or incomplete answer to any
question as in the case of the response in an interview.
3) Good questionnaires are difficult to prepare.
4) Lack of direct contact may mean that questions are interpreted
in different ways by different respondents.
Types of Questionnaire
Questionnaire can be one of the following types:
1) Structured Questionnaire
.
2) Unstructured Questionnaire
Structured Questionnaire
In structured questionnaire respondent needs to select
from possible options for answers and thus the range
of answer is limited. Structured questions, for
example, could have answer options of the following
types:
a) Multiple choices
b) Selection on a ranking scale
c) Selection of a ranting
d) Fill in the blanks
.
Unstructured Questionnaire
In this type of questionnaire, respondent’s opinions are
asked. The respondent is made to answer freely. Such
questions are open ended. No options or predefined
categories are suggested. The respondent supplies their
own answer without being constrained by a fixed set of
possible responses. Examples of types of open ended
questions include:
Completely unstructured - For example, “What is
your opinion on existing computerized system?”
.
There are two ways to collect data from the questionnaire data. These are:
1) Open ended questionnaire
2) Closed ended questionnaire
Open ended questionnaire
No options or predefined categories are suggested. The respondent supplies their own
answer without being constrained by a fixed set of possible responses.
Benefits:
1) This method is better to find opinions and general experiences of the respondents.
2) They are also useful for exploring the solutions for a process or a problem.
3) This type of questionnaires provides ample opportunity for the respondents to
discuss the reasons for their ideas.
.
Closed ended questions
Respondents’ answers are limited to a fixed set of responses. Most scales are closed
ended. Other types of closed ended questions include:
Yes/no questions - The respondent answers with a “yes” or a “no”.
Multiple choice - The respondent has several options from which to choose.
Scaled questions - Responses are graded on a continuum (example: rate the
appearance of the product on a scale from 1 to 10, with 10 being the most preferred
appearance).
Rank-order scale (See scale for a complete list of scaling techniques.).
.
How to develop a Questionnaire
A good questionnaire takes time and hard work to develop. The
following guidelines may be followed while developing a
questionnaire:
1) The objective of the questionnaire should be explained to the
participants in an introductory note.
2) The recipient should also be informed regarding the
confidentiality of their responses and the use of collected
information. The deadline for return of the filled in questionnaire
should be stated.
3) Detailed instructions on form completion should be provided
and sample answers should be given.
4) Questions should be limited to one topic at a time. Simple
sentences and familiar words should be used.
5) Questions should appear in a logical
order, with those on the
.
same topic being grouped together.