OCR A Level Physical Education A 7875
OCR Examinations
A Level Physical Education
A 7875
Module 2566
part 2
Exercise and Sport Physiology
and the integration of knowledge of principles and concepts
across different areas of Physical Education
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Module 2566.2.1
INDEX
Index
OCR A Level Physical Education A 7875
3
4
5
6
- AEROBIC CAPACITY - OXYGEN UPTAKE - VO2 / VO2max
- AEROBIC CAPACITY - FACTORS AFFECTING VO2max
- AEROBIC CAPACITY - FACTORS AFFECTING VO2max
- AEROBIC CAPACITY
ADAPTATIONS PRODUCED BY AEROBIC TRAINING
7 - AEROBIC CAPACITY - AEROBIC FITNESS TESTS
8 - AEROBIC CAPACITY - IMPORTANCE
9 - TYPES OF TRAINING USED TO DEVELOP AEROBIC CAPACITY
CONTINUOUS / INTERVAL / FARTLEK TRAINING
10 - MONITORING EXERCISE INTENSITY - TARGET HEART RATE
11 - FOOD FUEL USAGE FOR AEROBIC ACTIVITY
12 - FOOD FUEL USAGE FOR AEROBIC ACTIVITY - FUEL SOURCES
13 - FOOD FUEL UTILISATION DURING AEROBIC EXERCISE
GLYSOGEN SPARING
14 - AEROBIC CAPACITY - ADAPTATIONS
15 - AEROBIC CAPACITY - VASCULAR / CARDIAC RESPONSES
16 - AEROBIC CAPACITY - TRAINING / RESPIRATORY / RECOVERY
17 - CELLULAR ADAPTATION PRODUCED BY AEROBIC TRAINING
18 - AEROBIC CAPACITY - MUSCLE / NEURAL RESPONSES
19 - STRENGTH
20 - STRENGTH - MAXIMAL / ELASTIC / STATIC / DYNAMIC
EXPLOSIVE STRENGTH / STRENGTH ENDURANCE
21 - STRENGTH OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION - FACTORS AFFECTING
22 - FACTORS AFFECTING STRENGTH - MUSCLE FIBRE TYPE
23 - FACTORS AFFECTING STRENGTH - MUSCLE CSA / GENDER
24 - FACTORS AFFECTING STRENGTH - TYPE OF TRAINING
25 - FACTORS AFFECTING STRENGTH - TYPE OF CONTRACTION
26 - FACTORS AFFECTING STRENGTH - REGRESSION
27 - FACTORS AFFECTING STRENGTH - AGEING
28 - TRAINING METHODS - DEVELOPING STRENGTH
29 - TRAINING METHODS - INTERVAL TRAINING
30 - EXAMPLES OF TRAINING METHODS - STRENGTH
31 - EXAMPLES OF TRAINING METHODS - STRENGTH
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32 - FOOD FUEL UTILISATION DURING STRENGTH TRAINING
33 - ADAPTATIONS PRODUCED BY STRENGTH TRAINING
34 - ADAPTATIONS PRODUCED BY STRENGTH TRAINING
35 - ADAPTATIONS PRODUCED BY STRENGTH TRAINING
MUSCLE CELL
36 - LONG-TERM ADAPTATIONS TO HIGH INTENSITY
TRAINING - ATP / PC STORES
37 - ADAPTATIONS PRODUCED BY STRENGTH TRAINING
38 - ADAPTATIONS PRODUCED BY STRENGTH TRAINING
39 - FLEXIBILITY
40 - FACTORS AFFECTING FLEXIBILITY
41 - EVALUATING FLEXIBILITY - FLEXIBILITY TESTS
42 - EVALUATING FLEXIBILITY - GONIOMETER
43 - MOBILITY TRAINING
44 - PHYS. ADAPTATIONS CAUSED BY MOBILITY TRAINING
45 - FLEXIBILITY AND YOUR PPP
46 - OTHER COMPONENTS OF FITNESS
47 - OTHER COMPONENTS OF FITNESS - MOTOR COMPONENTS
48 - OTHER COMPONENTS OF FITNESS
49 - OTHER COMPONENTS OF FITNESS - BODY COMPOSITION
50 - PHYSICAL ACTIVITY READINESS QUESTIONNAIRE - PARQ
51 - COMPONENTS OF FITNESS AND YOUR PPP
52 - ERGOGENIC AIDS
53 - ERGOGENIC AIDS - CARBOLOADING
54 - ERGOGENIC AIDS - EXAMPLE OF CARBOLOADING
55 - ERGOGENIC AIDS - CARBOLOADING
56 - ERGOGENIC AIDS - PRE / DURING / POST COMPETITION
57 - ERGOGENIC AIDS - DIETARY MANIPULATION
58 - ERGOGENIC AIDS - CREATINE / GLUTAMINE / CAFFEINE
59 - ERGOGENIC AIDS - BLOOD DOPING / rEPO
60 - ERGOGENIC AIDS - ALTITUDE TRAINING
61 - ERGOGENIC AIDS - MECHANICAL
62 - ERGOGENIC AIDS - ILLEGAL PHARMACEUTICAL
Module 2566.2.2
OCR A Level Physical Education A 7875
Aerobic Capacity
AEROBIC CAPACITY
OXYGEN UPTAKE - VO2
• amount of oxygen consumed per unit of time (usually
1 minute)
• expressed as VO2
• mean value at rest
= 0.2 to 0.3 l min-1
• VO2 increases proportionally to work intensity
• up to a maximum value - called VO2max
VO2max
• mean values are :
• males (20 yo) = 3.5 l min-1
•
= 40 ml kg-1 min-1
• (for average male body mass 87.5 kg)
• females (20 yo) = 2.3 l min-1
•
= 35 ml kg-1 min-1
• (for mean female body mass 66 kg)
• endurance athletes
= 4 to 6 l min-1
•
= 75 ml kg-1 min-1
• (for mean body mass 66 kg)
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Module 2566.2.3
OCR A Level Physical Education A 7875
Aerobic Capacity
AEROBIC CAPACITY
AEROBIC CAPACITY
• the ability to do physical work
which is dependant on the
aerobic mechanism of energy
supply
STEADY STATE
• the demands of the body for
oxygen is balanced exactly by
oxygen uptake
FACTORS AFFECTING VO2max
• availability of O2 in the tissue
– whether haemoglobin
arriving at tissue is fully
saturated with O2
– the limitations of the cardiovascular and
pulmonary systems which varies from individual
to individual
– whether myglobin in muscle cells is fully saturated
with O2 (has sufficient recovery time elapsed?)
• reduction in VO2max will cause decline in aerobic
performance
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Module 2566.2.4
OCR A Level Physical Education A 7875
Aerobic Capacity
AEROBIC CAPACITY
FACTORS AFFECTING VO2max
• VO2max reduces at about 10%
per decade during ageing - for
sedentary people
•
•
•
•
VO2max reduces less for active
sportspeople as they age
aerobic training can cause VO2max
to be improved by 10 - 20%
women have greater reductions
in VO2max from late teens
onwards
probably because of the tradition
of less physical activity for women
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Module 2566.2.5
OCR A Level Physical Education A 7875
Aerobic Capacity
AEROBIC CAPACITY
ADAPTATIONS PRODUCED BY AEROBIC TRAINING
• cardiovascular system becomes more efficient
• heart becomes bigger and stronger and pumps more blood per pulse
• more haemoglobin is available in blood for oxygen transport
• capillary system in muscle bed is utilised better and developed
•
•
•
•
pulmonary systems become more efficient
musculature of torso becomes stronger and more efficient
lung volumes increase slightly, greater volumes of air can be breathed per
breath
efficiency of alveoli improves, and more alveoli are utilised
•
more myoglobin and mitochondria are created in muscle cells
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Module 2566.2.6
OCR A Level Physical Education A 7875
Aerobic Capacity
AEROBIC CAPACITY
AEROBIC FITNESS TESTS
PREDICTED VO2max
• PWC 170 test
– predicts the power output of a subject at a HR of 170 bpm
– by measuring HR at a 100W cycle ergometer rating and 150W rating
– when the subject is at a steady state
– then projecting the results for power to a HR of 170
• Cooper Run Test
– measures the distance run in 12 minutes
– and correlates this (as direct proportionality) to the VO2max
• NCF multistage shuttle run test (bleep test)
– the subject runs a progressively quicker shuttle run to exhaustion
– each step in the progression is numbered
– the step reached by the subject is correlated to the VO2max
• the FITECH step test
• Queen’s College step test
ACTUAL VO2max test
• a treadmill protocol which is a progressive test to exhaustion
– the VO2 is measured at each stage measuring exhaled air oxygen consumption
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Module 2566.2.7
OCR A Level Physical Education A 7875
Aerobic Capacity
AEROBIC CAPACITY
IMPORTANCE OF AEROBIC CAPACITY TO ENDURANCE PERFORMERS
• useful as an indicator showing athletes’ maximal physiological capacity
• repeated tests would show the effects of endurance training on
VO2max
GENDER DIFFERENCES
• sociocultural
• females carry more body fat
• females have lower Hb counts therefore
less O2 carrying capacity
• males produce more testosterone
thereby increasing strength and efficiency
of myocardial muscle
PREDOMINANT MUSCLE FIBRE TYPE
• athletes with more slow twitch fibres
can utilise O2 more efficiently
EXAMPLE OF SPORTING ACTIVITIES
• swimming (>200m)
• running (>800m)
• cross country skiing
• games lasting longer than a few minutes
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Module 2566.2.8
OCR A Level Physical Education A 7875
Aerobic Capacity
TYPES OF TRAINING USED TO DEVELOP AEROBIC CAPACITY
CONTINUOUS TRAINING
• exercise regimes lasting longer than
60 seconds
• involving low forces
• where breathing is comfortable and
the activity is aerobic
• examples :
– jogging, swimming, step aerobics
FARTLEK TRAINING
• fartlek means ‘speed play’
• pace is varied from sprinting to
jogging
• this is a combined form of continuous
and interval training
INTERVAL TRAINING
• characterised by sets, repetitions and
rest relief
• example :
– swimming :
• 2 sets of 10 at 50m at 70%
effort
• with 30 seconds rest relief
between repetitions, and 3
minutes rest between sets
– circuit training, weight training
•
•
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•
•
normally performed in the
countryside
over 45 minutes or longer
can include all round body exercises
between running bouts
helps develop VO2max and the
recovery process
Module 2566.2.9
OCR A Level Physical Education A 7875
Aerobic Capacity
MONITORING EXERCISE INTENSITY
TARGET HEART RATE
• a specific heart rate (HR) to be
achieved and maintained during exercise
• if aerobic adaptations are to occur,
training must take place at a HR above
the aerobic threshold
• this theory is based on the fact that VO2
is proportional to HR
HR ESTIMATION
• HR will depend on fitness of athlete
• maximum HR
HRmax = 220 - age
• aerobic threshold (Karvonen)
HR
= HRrest + 0.6(HRmax - HRrest)
• example :
– age
= 20, HRrest = 70 bpm
– HRmax = 220 - 20 = 200 bpm
– aerobic threshold HR
= 70 + 0.6(200 - 70)
= 70 + 0.6 x 130 = 70 + 78
= 148 bpm
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AEROBIC TRAINING ZONE
• this is shown on graph
• which shows a range of HR values at
which aerobic training should occur
• this will enable adaptations to occur
which improve VO2max
Module 2566.2.10
OCR A Level Physical Education A 7875
Aerobic Capacity
FOOD FUEL USAGE FOR AEROBIC ACTIVITY
FOOD FUEL USAGE
• this depends on :
– EXERCISE INTENSITY
– EXERCISE DURATION
AT REST
• ATP utilisation is slow
• a mixture of fats and carbohydrates is
used to resynthesise ATP
FOR LOW INTENSITY LONG DURATION
AEROBIC ACTIVITY
• usage of a variety of fuels
• but mainly the oxidation of a mixture of
CHO and fats
• the longer the exercise the bigger the
proportion of ATP resynthesis provided
by fats
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Module 2566.2.11
OCR A Level Physical Education A 7875
Aerobic Capacity
FOOD FUEL USAGE FOR AEROBIC ACTIVITY
SOURCES OF FUELS
• main source of CHO for muscular energy during exercise is glucose
• derived from stored muscle and liver glycogen
• lack of CHO fuel is the limiting factor for aerobic endurance performance
•
•
•
•
•
main source of fat for muscular energy during exercise is free fatty acids
(FFA)
derived from triglycerides stored as adipose tissue under the skin and in
muscle tissue
triglycerides break
down into FFA for
entry into the
aerobic energy
system
proteins become a
significant source of
energy only in
extreme conditions
when CHO and fats
are depleted
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Module 2566.2.12
OCR A Level Physical Education A 7875
Aerobic Capacity
FOOD FUEL UTILISATION DURING AEROBIC EXERCISE
GLYCOGEN SPARING AS A LONG-TERM
ADAPTATION TO AEROBIC TRAINING
•
•
•
•
•
for the person who has undertaken
sustained aerobic training
an adaptation is produced where fats are
used earlier on in exercise
thus conserving glycogen stores
(respiratory exchange ratio (RER) indicates
greater use of fats)
the graph shows a higher proportion of
fats utilised by the trained person
thereby releasing CHO for higher intensity
work
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Module 2566.2.13
OCR A Level Physical Education A 7875
Aerobic Capacity
AEROBIC CAPACITY
ADAPTATIONS PRODUCED BY AEROBIC TRAINING
CARDIAC RESPONSE
• blood plasma volume increases with training
• therefore increased blood plasma volume enters left ventricle
• increasing the stretch of the ventricular walls by the Frank-Starling mechanism
•
•
•
•
•
•
cardiac hypertrophy – heart becomes bigger and stronger (mainly left ventricle)
increased ventricular muscle mass and stronger elastic recoil of the myocardium
causes a more forceful contraction during ventricular systole
therefore stroke volume increases and HR decreases (bradycardia)
and hence providing more oxygen per pulse
the net effect is up to 20% bigger stroke volume and greater oxygen
delivery to muscles
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Module 2566.2.14
OCR A Level Physical Education A 7875
Aerobic Capacity
AEROBIC CAPACITY
ADAPTATIONS PRODUCED BY AEROBIC TRAINING
• cardiovascular system becomes more efficient
VASCULAR RESPONSE
• more haemoglobin is created and is available in blood for oxygen transport
• capillary system in muscle bed is utilised better and developed
• there is increased capillarisation of trained muscle
• and improved dilation of existing capillaries due to increased blood volume
• increased elasticity and thickness of smooth muscle of arterial walls makes
walls tougher and therefore less likely to stretch under pressure
• hence a more effective blood distribution
• this maintains blood pressure forcing blood through capillary network
• during ageing arteries lose muscle and hence stretch more under pressure
• hence greater BP required to force blood through capillary system
• heart has to work harder
BLOOD VESSELS IN THE HEART
• blood flow to heart decreases because heart muscle is more efficient
• hence decrease in resting HR
• and increase in diastolic HR during maximal workloads
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Module 2566.2.15
OCR A Level Physical Education A 7875
Aerobic Capacity
AEROBIC CAPACITY
ADAPTATIONS PRODUCED BY AEROBIC TRAINING
• pulmonary systems become more efficient
RESPIRATORY RESPONSE
• musculature of torso becomes stronger and more efficient
• lung volumes increase slightly, greater volumes of air can be breathed per
breath
• increase in VC at the expense of RV
• hence decrease in breathing rate (f) at submaximal workloads
• and increase in breathing rate (f) at maximal workloads
• hence large increase in volume of air breathed per minute (VE)
•
•
•
increase in pulmonary blood flow and plasma volume
efficiency of alveoli improves, and more alveoli are utilised
hence increased gaseous exchange and VO2max
RECOVERY
• improved oxygen recovery
• with better muscle capillarisation and efficient cool-down, lactic acid removal is
improved
• hence reduction in DOMS
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Module 2566.2.16
OCR A Level Physical Education A 7875
Aerobic Capacity
CELLULAR ADAPTATION PRODUCED BY AEROBIC TRAINING
AFTER SEVERAL WEEKS OF
AEROBIC TRAINING
BEFORE TRAINING
glycogen
fats
oxygen uptake
glycogen
fats
oxygen uptake
= SLOW TWITCH MUSCLE FIBRE (type I)
= FAST TWITCH MUSCLE FIBRE (type II) (do not increase in size)
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Module 2566.2.17
OCR A Level Physical Education A 7875
Aerobic Capacity
AEROBIC CAPACITY
ADAPTATIONS PRODUCED BY AEROBIC TRAINING
MUSCLE CELL RESPONSE
• more myoglobin is created in muscle cells
• more and bigger mitochondria in muscle cells
• increased oxidative enzymes glycogen phosphorylase, phosphofructokinase,
lipoprotein lipase
• hence increased activity of Kreb’s cycle and electron transport chain
• and increase in stores and utilisation of fat
• increase in stores of glycogen in muscle
• which enables more fuel to be available for aerobic work
•
conversion of type IIb to type IIa fibres
NEURAL RESPONSE
• better recruitment of slow twitch fibre motor units making muscle usage
more efficient
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Module 2566.2.18
OCR A Level Physical Education A 7875
Strength
STRENGTH
maximum
strength
strength
endurance
dynamic
strength
elastic
strength
static
strength
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explosive
strength
STRENGTH
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Module 2566.2.19
OCR A Level Physical Education A 7875
Strength
STRENGTH
MAXIMAL STRENGTH
ELASTIC STRENGTH
• force exerted by a muscle group (or
• the ability to apply as large a force as
combination) during a single maximal
possible using an eccentric contraction
contraction (1 repetition maximum - 1RM)
followed by a concentric contraction
• measured using : hand grip dynamometer
• measured using : rebound jump from a
0.3m box
STRENGTH ENDURANCE
• the ability to sustain powerful muscular
contractions over a short period of time
• measured using : Wingate 30 second cycle
ergometer test
EXPLOSIVE STRENGTH
• the ability to apply as large a force as
possible at speed
• measured using : standing long jump,
vertical jump
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STATIC STRENGTH
• the ability to apply as large a force as
possible without movement
• measured using : back dynamometer
DYNAMIC STRENGTH
• the ability to apply as large a force as
possible within a dynamic movement
• measured using : weight lifting movement
(snatch)
Module 2566.2.20
OCR A Level Physical Education A 7875
Strength
STRENGTH OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION
FACTORS AFFECTING THE STRENGTH OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION
metabolic condition
(fatigue)
amount of load
(stretch reflex)
STRENGTH OF
MUSCLE
CONTRACTION
recruitment of
motor units
(number of fibres
activated)
initial length of
muscle fibres
(length tension
relationship)
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Module 2566.2.21
OCR A Level Physical Education A 7875
Strength
FACTORS AFFECTING STRENGTH
MUSCLE FIBRE TYPE
• people inherit a tendency to have a majority of fast twitch or
slow twitch fibres
• therefore strength is affected by fibre type distribution
• examples :
– sprinters tend to have a majority of fast twitch type II
– endurance athletes tend to have a majority of slow
twitch type I
percentage of fast and slow twitch muscle fibres compared to sporting activity
% type I
% type II
males
females
males
females
distance runners
79
69
21
31
cross country skiers
64
59
36
41
cyclists
60
52
40
48
800m runners
48
61
52
39
javelin throwers
50
43
50
57
shot putters
38
50
62
50
sprinters
24
29
76
71
untrained
45
55
55
45
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Module 2566.2.22
OCR A Level Physical Education A 7875
Strength
FACTORS AFFECTING STRENGTH
MUSCLE CROSS SECTIONAL AREA
• gender is a significant factor because females in general have muscles
with smaller cross section than males
• hence a smaller muscle mass on average for females by about 20%
compared with males
• there is less total phosphagen available for maximal muscle contractions
• hence peak power on average 20% less for females compared with
males
•
apart from gender, muscle mass differences between individuals is
a large factor when accounting for strength
GENDER
• females have lower levels of lactic acid in their blood following
maximal exercise compared with males
• this suggests that female capacity for utilising glycolysis is lower
•
•
females tend to have a higher proportion of body fat than males
hence females would have a lower strength to weight ratio because
of this factor
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Module 2566.2.23
OCR A Level Physical Education A 7875
Strength
FACTORS AFFECTING STRENGTH
TYPE OF RESISTANCE TRAINING PROGRAMME USED
• the following table shows a comparison of the effect of different types
of resistance training on the possible effects produced
criterion
rate of strength gain
rate of endurance gain
strength gain over range of motion
time per training session
expense
ease of performance
ease of progress assessment
adaptability to specific movement patterns
least possibility of muscle soreness
least possibility of injury
skill improvement
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isokinetic
excellent
excellent
excellent
good
poor
good
poor
excellent
excellent
excellent
excellent
isometric
poor
poor
poor
excellent
excellent
excellent
good
poor
good
good
poor
isotonic
good
good
good
poor
good
poor
excellent
good
poor
poor
good
Module 2566.2.24
OCR A Level Physical Education A 7875
Strength
FACTORS AFFECTING STRENGTH
TYPE OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION TAKING PLACE
• the following graph show the relationship between force produced during
eccentric, static and concentric contraction against rate of muscle
contraction
•
eccentric work exceeds the
isometric maximum by about
30%
•
this is because the body is able to
mobilise a greater number of
motor units and hence muscle
force
•
the extra force attempts to
prevent full lengthening of
the muscle
which would reduce injury risk caused by stretching a muscle under full
tension
•
•
this large force acts to brake and control the movement
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Module 2566.2.25
OCR A Level Physical Education A 7875
Strength
FACTORS AFFECTING STRENGTH
REGRESSION OR DETRAINING
• there is evidence that once training stops, there is a reduction in
strength adaptations (and other training adaptations)
• the amount and rate of regression depends on the length of time
training has occurred
• hence short term gains in strength are quickly lost after ceasing training
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Module 2566.2.26
OCR A Level Physical Education A 7875
Strength
FACTORS AFFECTING STRENGTH
AGEING
• maximal anaerobic power for both males and
females decreases after 25 years
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Module 2566.2.27
OCR A Level Physical Education A 7875
Strength
TRAINING METHODS
TRAINING METHODS FOR DEVELOPING STRENGTH
sets
rest-relief
repetitions
TRAINING
METHODS
periodisation
plyometrics
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circuit / stage
training
free weights
machine weights
Module 2566.2.28
OCR A Level Physical Education A 7875
Strength
TRAINING METHODS
INTERVAL TRAINING
•
•
•
this is a training method in which bouts of training
are separated by periods of rest-relief
during the bouts of training exercises are repeated
(repetitions) and grouped into blocks (sets) with
rest relief between sets
the exercise type and loading, number of
repetitions and sets, and length of rest relief
governs the strength effect produced :
– maximum strength
– explosive strength
– elastic strength
– static strength
– dynamic strength
– strength endurance
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Module 2566.2.29
OCR A Level Physical Education A 7875
Strength
EXAMPLES OF TRAINING METHODS
TRAINING FOR :
MAXIMUM STRENGTH
• choose weight training strength exercises
• 3 - 5 sets of low repetitions (<4) / high loading (>85% of
1 RM)
• up to 10 minutes rest relief between sets
EXPLOSIVE STRENGTH
• choose exercises which utilise this feature (sprint start,
standing long jump, overhead shot throw)
• single efforts at 100% effort (but operated at speed)
• with full recovery rest relief (1 to 10 minutes)
ELASTIC STRENGTH
• choose plyometric exercises (jumping , bounding, medicine
ball exercises) which utilise eccentric movements at 100%
effort
• 3 - 5 sets of 3 - 10 repetitions
• with medium recovery (1-3 minutes)
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Module 2566.2.30
OCR A Level Physical Education A 7875
Strength
EXAMPLES OF TRAINING METHODS
TRAINING FOR :
STATIC STRENGTH
• single repetition static exercises at maximum (100%)
intensity for efforts of 10 seconds
• with 60 seconds rest relief between efforts
DYNAMIC STRENGTH
• choose weight training movements made at full speed near sport demand (but at 40 - 80% of 1RM)
• 3 - 5 sets of 4 - 10 repetitions with short recovery (1 - 2
minutes)
STRENGTH ENDURANCE
• use any exercises which can be performed for many
repetitions
• weight training / circuit training / stage training / resistance
training (running uphill or towing a tyre)
• 15 - 60 repetitions at 30 - 60% of 1RM
• single or multiple sets with short or zero rest-relief
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Module 2566.2.31
OCR A Level Physical Education A 7875
Strength
FOOD FUEL UTILISATION DURING STRENGTH TRAINING
ENERGY SYSTEMS
HIGH INTENSITY MAXIMAL WORK FOR LESS THAN 8 seconds
• the PC alactic energy system provides the majority of ATP resynthesis for this
period
• food fuels used are direct use of PC stored in the muscle cell
• then those involved in the oxygen recovery phase after exercise
• which is an aerobic process, and inputs food fuel from mostly CHO and some fats
HIGH INTENSITY WORK FOR UP TO 60 seconds (STRENGTH ENDURANCE)
• the lactic acid energy system provides the bulk of ATP for this period
• food fuels used directly are muscle glycogen via glycolysis
• then those involved in the oxygen recovery phase after exercise
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Module 2566.2.32
OCR A Level Physical Education A 7875
Strength
ADAPTATIONS PRODUCED BY STRENGTH TRAINING
connective
tissue
body
composition
individual
response
anaerobic adaptive
responses
regression
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muscle
neural
sweating
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Module 2566.2.33
OCR A Level Physical Education A 7875
Strength
ADAPTATIONS PRODUCED BY STRENGTH TRAINING
AFTER SEVERAL WEEKS OF
STRENGTH (ANAEROBIC) TRAINING
MUSCLE CELL
BEFORE TRAINING
ATP
CP
glycogen
glycolytic
enzymes
lactic acid
ATP
CP
glycogen
glycolytic
enzymes
lactic acid
= SLOW TWITCH MUSCLE FIBRE (type I) (starts small gets smaller)
= FAST TWITCH MUSCLE FIBRE (type II) (starts big gets bigger)
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Module 2566.2.34
OCR A Level Physical Education A 7875
Strength
ADAPTATIONS PRODUCED BY STRENGTH TRAINING
MUSCLE CELL RESPONSE (FAST TWITCH FIBRES)
• muscle hypertrophy (of fast twitch fibres) increases cross sectional area of
existing fibres by increasing :
– number of myofibrils within each muscle cell
– sarcoplasmic volume
– contractile proteins : actin and myosin
– mass of fast twitch fibres
– number of fast twitch fibres (hyperplasia)
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
hence % of type II increases and % of type I decreases
increase in muscle cell stores such as ATP, PC, and glycogen
increase in anaerobic enzymes such as creatine kinase (CK), PFK, GPP, and LDH
increase toleration of lactate in fast twitch fibres
improved ability to remove lactate from muscle cell into blood
therefore enhancement of alactic / lactate and lactate / aerobic thresholds - delay
in OBLA
hence improved capacities of alactic and lactic acid systems to resynthesise ATP
and ability to maintain maximal power output for longer
decrease in DOMS, particularly following eccentric training
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Module 2566.2.35
OCR A Level Physical Education A 7875
Strength
LONG-TERM ADAPTATIONS TO HIGH INTENSITY TRAINING
LONG-TERM ADAPTATIONS TO AN
ANAEROBIC TRAINING
PROGRAMME
• increases in stores of ATP and PC
• and amounts of anaerobic
enzymes such as creatine kinase
• result in more energy to be
available more rapidly
• and therefore increases in
maximum possible peak power
•
and a delay in the ATP/PC to lactic
threshold
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Module 2566.2.36
OCR A Level Physical Education A 7875
Strength
ADAPTATIONS PRODUCED BY STRENGTH TRAINING
NEURAL ADAPTIVE RESPONSE
• increased rate of response of CNS (Central Nervous
System)
• recruitment of additional fast twitch fibre motor units
• improved coordination of fast twitch fibre motor units
• toughening of proprioceptors so that more force is
required to stimulate inhibitory signals
CONNECTIVE TISSUE RESPONSE
• increase in thickness and strength of tendons
• increased flexibility of ligaments
• thickening and improved elasticity of cartilage
• strengthening of bone tissue due to increased depositing of
calcium
• therefore reduced risk of injury
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Module 2566.2.37
OCR A Level Physical Education A 7875
Strength
ADAPTATIONS PRODUCED BY STRENGTH TRAINING
INDIVIDUAL RESPONSE
• adaptive response depends on individual
– fitness
– cultural differences
– gender
– psychological factors
– maturation
SWEATING
• improved ability to sweat
• more efficient heat loss
REGRESSION
• when training stops, adaptive responses cease
• the longer the training the more stable the adaptation
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Module 2566.2.38
OCR A Level Physical Education A 7875
Flexibility
FLEXIBILITY
STATIC
the range of motion
about a joint which
is held in a fixed
position
FLEXIBILITY
DYNAMIC
the range of motion
during a rapid
movement
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Module 2566.2.39
OCR A Level Physical Education A 7875
Flexibility
FACTORS AFFECTING FLEXIBILITY
FACTORS AFFECTING FLEXIBILITY
• bony features of a joint
• length and position of tendons and ligaments
•
•
elasticity of muscle tissue
elasticity of skin
•
muscle temperature
– warm-up improves flexibility
•
gender differences
– females are generally more flexible then males
•
ageing
– flexibility decreases with age
•
body composition
– the proportions of muscle and fat
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Module 2566.2.40
OCR A Level Physical Education A 7875
Flexibility
EVALUATING FLEXIBILITY
FLEXIBILITY TESTS
• in the diagrams, the red arrow shows the distance measured
to assess flexibility
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Module 2566.2.41
OCR A Level Physical Education A 7875
Flexibility
EVALUATING FLEXIBILITY
THE GONIOMETER
• a device containing a 180o protractor for
measuring the maximum angle turned through by
the bones at a joint
• which is then a measure of the flexibility of the
joint
• the centre of a goniometer is positioned at the axis
of rotation of the joint
• the arms of the goniometer are aligned with the
long axis of the two bones which articulate at
the joint
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Module 2566.2.42
OCR A Level Physical Education A 7875
Flexibility
MOBILITY TRAINING
PASSIVE
ACTIVE
slow stretching
which is assisted by
a partner or
external agent to
push the athlete to
the end point
slow stretching in
which the flexibility
is achieved using
the athlete's own
muscles
MOBILITY
TRAINING
PNF
BALLISTIC or
KINETIC
stretching followed by
isometric contraction,
followed by further
stretching - during this
process proprioceptors
are made less active
- hence allowing
further stretching.
rapid stretching
movements in
which contractions
of an agonist force
the antagonist to
lengthen
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Module 2566.2.43
OCR A Level Physical Education A 7875
Flexibility
PHYSIOLOGICAL ADAPTATIONS CAUSED BY MOBILITY TRAINING
ADAPTATIONS
• limited stretching of soft tissues :
– ligaments
– tendons
• increase in resting / residual length
– skeletal muscle tissue
•
inhibition of stretch reflex as muscle spindles
lengthen
– the stretch reflex limits flexibility
– therefore this inhibition would improve flexibility
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Module 2566.2.44
OCR A Level Physical Education A 7875
Flexibility
FLEXIBILITY AND YOUR PPP
YOU SHOULD INCLUDE IN YOUR PPP
• evidence of mobility training undertaken
to improve flexibility
• lists of exercises and their place in your
schedule
– duration of exercise
– numbers of repetitions
•
•
Previous
plans for flexibility training as part of your
overall training plan for your chosen
activity
analysis of your chosen needs for
flexibility
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Module 2566.2.45
OCR A Level Physical Education A 7875
Body Composition etc
OTHER COMPONENTS OF FITNESS
agility
balance
body
composition
OTHER COMPONENTS
OF FITNESS
speed
Previous
reaction time
coordination
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Module 2566.2.46
OCR A Level Physical Education A 7875
Body Composition etc
OTHER COMPONENTS OF FITNESS
AGILITY
• the ability to rapidly change body
position and direction in a
precise manner
• measured using : Illinois agility run
• improved using : agility circuits
COORDINATION
• ability to perform smooth and
accurate motor tasks
• measured using : juggling
• improved using :
– training practices in which
new skills are presented and
learnt
– new motor programmes are
being developed
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REACTION TIME
• time interval between
presentation of a stimulus and
the muscular response
• measured using :
– stick drop test
– computer timing programme
• improved using :
– new tests which will assist
recruitment of motor-unit
firing patterns
– particularly fast twitch units
– reaction time computer
games
– practice with electronic timing
of starts from blocks
Module 2566.2.47
OCR A Level Physical Education A 7875
Body Composition etc
OTHER COMPONENTS OF FITNESS
BALANCE
• ability to retain the centre of mass
above the base of support
STATIC BALANCE
• ability to hold a stationary balance
• measured using :
– length of time a beam balance
can be held
• improved using :
– wobble board drills in which the
aim is to vary balance postures
under control of the performer
DYNAMIC BALANCE
• balance under changing
conditions of body movement,
shape and orientation
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SPEED
• the maximum rate at which a person
can move his / her body
• measured using :
– 30m sprint
• improved using :
– speed training using timing
devices
– improvements in the technical
sprinting model
– exercises whose aim is to move
more rapidly as opposed to strong
but slow
– this improves the recruitment of
fast twitch motor-units to enable
the learning of rapid movements
Module 2566.2.48
OCR A Level Physical Education A 7875
Body Composition etc
OTHER COMPONENTS OF FITNESS
BODY COMPOSITION
• relative percentage of muscle, fat
and bone
• measured using :
– skinfold measurements using
the J-P nomogram
– body composition scales using
bioelectrical impedance
analysis
– underwater weighing
• improved using :
– a balanced diet
– consideration of energy
balance
– a weight control programme
Previous
A BALANCED DIET
• has low fat, high carbohydrate intake
• a balance of minerals, vitamins
• sufficient protein for your activity
ENERGY BALANCE
• when balanced :
energy input = energy output
(from food)
(using exercise)
• negative energy balance :
energy output > energy input
• leads to weight loss, reduction in body fat
• positive energy balance :
energy input > energy output
• leads to weight gain, increase in body fat
A WEIGHT CONTROL PROGRAMME
• exercise of at least 30 min duration
• low to moderate intensity
• an aerobic HR = 70% of HRmax
• promotes use of fat as a secondary food fuel
• long term
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Module 2566.2.49
OCR A Level Physical Education A 7875
Components of Fitness
PHYSICAL ACTIVITY READINESS QUESTIONNAIRE - PARQ
YOUR PARQ
• you should administer to yourself a questionnaire which establishes on
medical grounds whether you should undertake demanding fitness tests
SAMPLE QUESTIONNAIRE
• answer the questions carefully and as accurately as you can
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
have you recently experienced breathing difficulties?
have you experienced any chest pain recently?
has your doctor ever indicated to you that you may have heart trouble?
have you ever experienced back pain?
have you recently been absent from college / school with illness?
are you aware of any possible problems with high blood pressure?
have you any muscle injury condition which may require further rest before
exercising?
have you any bone or joint injury or problem which might be made worse
with exercise?
have you any other condition which might affect your performance in your
proposed tests?
use common sense when deciding whether or not you should undertake a test
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Module 2566.2.50
OCR A Level Physical Education A 7875
Components of Fitness
COMPONENTS OF FITNESS AND YOUR PPP
RECORDING YOUR FITNESS TESTS
• you should make time to undertake a series of fitness tests
• and record the results in your PPP
• consult your PARQ beforehand, and take care with maximal tests
• this should be done several times during your course
• to enable you to assess the effectiveness of your personal training
• and any physiological adaptations induced by training
•
elements which could be assessed (students are not expected to do tests
unless they are relevant to their sporting activity) :
– strength
– flexibility
– body composition
– speed
– endurance
– agility
– power
– balance
– reaction time
– coordination
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Module 2566.2.51
OCR A Level Physical Education A 7875
Performance Enhancement
ERGOGENIC AIDS
legal physiological
nutrition
illegal physiological
ERGOGENIC AIDS
therapies
illegal pharmaceutical
mechanical
psychological
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Module 2566.2.52
OCR A Level Physical Education A 7875
Performance Enhancement
ERGOGENIC AIDS
ERGOGENIC AID
• any substance or method which
enhances performance
NUTRITIONAL
DIETARY MANIPULATION
CARBOLOADING
• aims to raise muscle glycogen stores above their normal resting levels
• prior to endurance competitions with over 90 minutes continuous activity
• suitable for activities with low anaerobic and high aerobic components
•
•
•
based on :
depletion - prolonged exercise to reduce levels of liver and muscle
glycogen stores - at least seven days before event
repletion - a high CHO diet in the period (three to four days) before
activity
combined with light exercise or rest
•
•
also suitable for activities lasting 15 - 20 minutes
with a two day high CHO diet beforehand
•
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Module 2566.2.53
OCR A Level Physical Education A 7875
Performance Enhancement
ERGOGENIC AIDS
NUTRITIONAL
DIETARY MANIPULATION - AN EXAMPLE OF CARBOLOADING
Carbohydrate loading (new technique after Williams 1998)
Endurance
taper
taper
taper
taper
taper
taper
training
training training training training training training
day 1
day 2
normal
diet
moderate----------------------
CHO diet
•
day 3
day 4
day 5
day 6
day 7
race
high ----------------------------------
CHO diet
this technique omits the glycogen depletion phase associated with earlier methods
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Module 2566.2.54
Performance Enhancement
OCR A Level Physical Education A 7875
ERGOGENIC AIDS - CARBOLOADING
CARBOLOADING
THE IMPORTANCE OF HIGH GLYCOGEN CONTENT IN MUSCLE BEFORE A
MARATHON RACE
• the graph shows
that a runner’s time
would increase by
more than 10
minutes in a 2 hour
run
• if muscle glycogen
is at 50% of its
maximum possible
• the effect of
reduced muscle
glycogen begins to
be felt at the 1 hour
mark
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Module 2566.2.55
OCR A Level Physical Education A 7875
Performance Enhancement
ERGOGENIC AIDS
NUTRITIONAL
DIETARY MANIPULATION
PRECOMPETITION NUTRITION
• fluids for hydration
• light complex CHO such as pasta / wholemeal bread at least 3 hours before activity
• fruit (banana) contains complex CHO and small amounts of glucose
• effect is to provide the slow release of blood glucose
• and reduce hunger sensations
FOOD / FLUID INTAKE DURING OR IN BETWEEN EXERCISE
• water loss of as little as 2% to 3% can reduce performance
• hence an isotonic sports drink including very diluted sodium and glucose content
• prevents dehydration and supplements energy reserves
• or just take water
POST COMPETITION / TRAINING NUTRITION
• hypertonic sports drink immediately after exercise has finished
• begins replenishment of blood glucose and glycogen store
• a high CHO meal within 15 minutes of exercise ending continues glycogen
replenishment
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Module 2566.2.56
OCR A Level Physical Education A 7875
Performance Enhancement
ERGOGENIC AIDS
NUTRITIONAL
DIETARY MANIPULATION
• the following graph shows the influence of dietary carbohydrate on muscle
glycogen stores
• repeated daily exercise of 2 hours is followed by a either a high CHO or low
CHO diet
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Module 2566.2.57
OCR A Level Physical Education A 7875
Performance Enhancement
ERGOGENIC AIDS
NUTRITIONAL
DIETARY MANIPULATION
CREATINE SUPPLEMENTATION
• creatine is a substance found in skeletal muscle
• stored as phosphocreatine (PC)
• supplementation increases PC levels to enhance the ATP-PC system of ATP
resynthesis
• thereby delaying the alactic / lactic threshold
GLUTAMINE
• is an amino acid forming part of skeletal muscle and immune cells
• supplementation after exercise therefore reinforces the immune system and
reduces the risk of infection
CAFFEINE
• stimulates the CNS but acts as a diuretic - this can lead to dehydration
• illegal in large quantities
ALCOHOL
• a relaxant in quite small quantities
• absorbed into the body as an alternative to water therefore causes dehydration
• quite small quantities of alcohol can cause a drastic loss of performance
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Module 2566.2.58
OCR A Level Physical Education A 7875
Performance Enhancement
ERGOGENIC AIDS
ILLEGAL PHYSIOLOGICAL
BLOOD DOPING
• involves the removal of athlete’s own blood which is then stored
• the athlete’s body then remanufactures blood to replace that taken
• then the stored blood is reinfused
• this temporarily increases red blood cell count (polycythemia)
• problem of mis-matching can lead to a transfusion reaction
• increases VO2max and hence energy delivery to enhance aerobic
performances
rEPO
• involves infusion of hormone recombinant erythropoietin 6 weeks
prior to major event
• stimulating erythrocytes (up to 10% more) - red blood cells
• increases VO2max and hence energy delivery to enhance aerobic
performances
• but elevates red blood cell production that can reach toxic life-threatening
levels
• other risks are blood clots, strokes / coronary thrombosis, very low resting
heart rates
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Module 2566.2.59
Performance Enhancement
ERGOGENIC AIDS
OCR A Level Physical Education A 7875
LEGAL PHYSIOLOGICAL
ALTITUDE TRAINING
• a predominantly endurance-based exercise programme used by elite endurance
athletes from a range of sports
• consisting of 2 visits of at least two weeks duration per visit, to altitude (normally
between 1800-3000 metres)
• second visit just prior to major competition
• training at altitude uses the fact that the body will create more haemoglobin
• to compensate for the reduction in oxygen available
• benefits : reversible physiological adaptations
– increased Hb concentration
– increases in myoglobin mitochondria and oxidative enzymes
• hence on return to sea level we have an increased VO2max and tissue cell
respiration leading to enhanced aerobic performance
• risks : hypoxia, altitude sickness
PSYCHOLOGICAL
• imagery / hypnosis stimulate mental rehearsal of relevant skills
• by activating neural pathways that reinforce skill
THERAPIES
• physiotherapy / acupuncture / herbal medicines used in injury treatment
• reduce muscle soreness and aid recovery of local damaged tissue
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Module 2566.2.60
OCR A Level Physical Education A 7875
Performance Enhancement
ERGOGENIC AIDS
MECHANICAL
NASAL STRIPS
• use of sticky plaster placed over bridge of nose to enlarge nasal
cavity
• enables easier breathing
SPECIALIST EQUIPMENT
• carbon fibre bike frames are lighter and aerodynamically more
efficient
• specialist training machines
– concept II ergo rower
– swimming ergo
– flumes for rowing / swimming / canoeing
– treadmill
SPECIALIST CLOTHING
• cycling helmets and lycra sports clothing reduces air resistance
• Denise Lewis one shoulder javelin suit, bench press and squatting
suits
– provide extra force in required directions
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Module 2566.2.61
OCR A Level Physical Education A 7875
Performance Enhancement
ERGOGENIC AIDS
ILLEGAL PHARMACEUTICAL
AMPHETAMINES
• act as CNS stimulants to increase arousal levels
BETA BLOCKERS
• reduce HR and BP thereby reducing tension, but can lead to heart
failure
HUMAN GROWTH HORMONE (HGH)
• stimulates bone growth and increased lean body mass
• give artificial increased strength / power outputs
ANABOLIC STEROIDS
• increase lean body mass, but reduce natural secretions of
gonadotrophins
• females acquire masculine features such as facial and body hair and
deep voices
• give artificial increased strength / power outputs
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Module 2566.2.62