Virus Evolution
Mechanisms of viral evolution
Evolution: the constant change of a viral population in the face of
selective pressures.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Mutation
Recombination
Reassortment
Selection
Positive and negative pressure select for particular preexisting mutants.
Basic point: Virus evolution is fast
• Fast generation time.
• Produce large numbers of progeny.
• High rates of mutation.
Virus-infected cells produce large numbers
of progeny
• Infection of a single cell by poliovirus can yield up to 104 viral
particles.
• In a person, up to 109 – 1011 particles can be produced per day.
• Enough to infect every person on the planet.
Evolution requires mutation: High mutation rates
(genome replication is inaccurate)
• Mutations occur when nucleic acids are copied (i.e. genome
replication).
• Error rate of human DNA polymerase is approximately 10-9 (3
mutations per replication of the human genome).
• Error correction machinery lowers this to 10-11
• Virus RNA and DNA polymerases
are much more error prone.
–RNA dependent RNA pol: 10-3 – 10-6
–DNA polymerases: 10-6 – 10-7
Quasispecies
Quasispecies: Virus populations as dynamic distributions of nonidentical
but related replicons.
• An RNA virus with a genome of 10 kb
• RDRP error rate of 10-5
 1 mutant in 1 position for every 10
virions produced.
• If 109 viral particles produced in a person
per day, then 108 mutant progeny are being
produced in that one individual each day
of infection.
Quasispecies- allow viruses with recessive mutations to be maintained
(genetic complementation)
Error Threshold
The error threshold: Error threshold is a mathematical parameter that
measures the complexity of the information that must be maintained to
ensure survival of the population.
The point at which accumulated mutations reduce fitness
•Too much mutation can be lead to loss of vital information
•Too little mutation can lead to host defenses overcoming the virus.
Fitness: the replicative adaptability of an organism to its environment.
The greatest fitness is when mutation rates approach the error
threshold.
Error Threshold
•Factors limiting mutations/evolution
1. mutations in cis acting factor required for replication, mRNA synthesis,
packaging of genomes will decrease fitness.
2. Constrained by interactions with the host.
3. Genome size.
•Antimutators: mutations in polymerase that reduce frequency of
incorporation errors.
Increased fidelity is not advantageous in nature and not selected.
• Error Catastrophe: extinction of an virus as the result of excessive
RNA mutations.
example: the antiviral drug ribavirin
Genetic bottleneck
Extreme selective pressure on a small population. Results in loss of
diversity and accumulation of non-selected mutations.
Genetic information exchange
Genetic information is exchanged by recombination of genome
segments. Infection of a cell by two different viruses can result
in exchange of genetic information, resulting in production of
mixed progeny.
1. Recombination of genome segments.
2. Reassortment.
3. Acquisition of cellular genes
Recombination
Template switching: polio virus
HIV 2 mechanisms:
1. Copy choice: during (-) strand synthesis
2. Strand assimilation: during (+) strand synthesis
Reassortment
Shift vs Drift
• Genetic drift: slow accumulation of mutations in a population. Due
to copying errors and immune selection.
• Genetic shift: a major genetic change caused by recombination or
reassortment of genomes.
Drift
Shift
Evolution is both driven and constrained by the
fundamental properties of viruses
• Despite lots of sequence diversity, viral populations maintain stable
master or consensus sequences.
The sequence that reflects the most common choice of nucleotide or amino acid at
each position.
• Diversity limited be the to ability to function within certain constraints.
These include:
–Particle geometry: eg. Icosahedral capsids limit genome size by limiting volume.
–All genomes are composed of nucleic acids: limits solutions to replication or
decoding of viral information.
–Requirement for interactions with host cell machinery.
–Requirements for interactions within the host.
Two general pathways for virus evolution
virus evolution is inescapable
•Co-evolution with host
Advantage: prosperous host = prosperous virus
Disadvantage: virus shares same fate as host.
Typically used by DNA viruses.
•Infection of multiple host species.
Advantage: if one host species is compromised the virus
can replicate in another
Disadvantage: cannot optimize for any one situation.
( a mutation that enhances replication in one host may decrease
replication in another)
Typically used by RNA viruses
Co-evolution
• Viruses and hosts tend to co-evolve toward symbiotic or at least
mutualistic relationships.
• Highly virulent virus will kill the host too soon
• Too exposed and the host will kill it.
Host-virus interactions
Co-evolution and fitness
• Example: the yeast killer virus.
–
–
–
–
–
L-A is a metabolic parasite of the host
M is a parasite of L-A
However, M confers a selective advantage on host.
Host tolerates L-A to maintain M.
L-A tolerates M to stay in good graces with host.
L-A
M1
Dead
Cell
Toxin
• Problem: no fossil record.
• Solution: Genomes as the fossil record.
• Relationships among different viral genomes
provide insight into virus origins. This is the basis
of molecular taxonomy. Fig. 20.2
Co-evolution with host
populations.
• Association of a given viral genome
sequence with a particular host group.
– e.g. different papillomaviruses subtypes are
more prevalent in different human populations.
• Can use viruses to trace human origins
The origin of viruses (Table
20.3).
1.
•
•
•
Regressive evolution (parasitism)
Viruses degenerated from previously independent life forms
Lost many functions
Retain only what they needed for parasitic lifestyle
2. Cellular origins
• Viruses derived from subcellular functional assemblies of
macromolecules that gained the capacity to move from cell to cell.
3. Independent entities
• Evolution on course parallel to that of cellular organisms.
• Evolved from primitive, pre-biotic self-replicating molecules.