• Take a few minutes to review your exam. In a section of your notebook, take notes on the concepts/questions that you struggled with.
• In addition, answer the following question:
– When you signed up for this course, what did you think psychology would be all about? How has that changed since Unit 1?
– Looking back over Unit 1, what learning strategies have you used to help you prepare for the Unit 1 exam?
What might you do differently to better prepare you for the next exam?

A relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience.
(Behavior change cannot be explained on the basis of innate response tendencies, maturation, or temporary states of the subject – fatigue, drugs, etc)
We connect events that occur in sequence

Ivan Pavlov
John B. Watson
B. F. Skinner
“Forget the mind…”
Psychology should based on observable behavior
Albert Bandura

•
Classical Conditioning
– learning an association between two stimuli that the organism does not control (EX: a bell and food, a white rat and a loud noise, a product and a celebrity)
– Behavior occurs as an automatic response (reflexive responding) to stimulus. (Stimulus  Behavior/Response)
• Operant Conditioning – learning an association between a response (behavior) and its consequence (EX: studying hard and a high test-grade, bar pressing and food)
– Action that operates on environment to produce rewarding or punishing stimulus – instead of simply reacting to stimuli
(Behavior/Response  Stimulus)
•
Observational Learning
– imitating the behavior of a role model

Albert Bandura
& the Bobo doll
Both (+) and (-) actions can be learned by observing others

Bandura’s Bobo-Doll Experiments
(1961-1963) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vd h7MngntnI
• Study: 3-5 yr. old children in 4 experimental conditions:
– 1) Live, aggressive model
– 2) Filmed, aggressive model
– 3) Cartoons with aggressive acts
– 4) No exposure to aggression
(control condition)
• Results: Groups 1, 2 & 3 showed significantly greater no. of aggressive acts (i.e. hits against bobo doll) than the control condition

• Watch the video clip “Mirror Neurons” from NOVA scienceNOWand take notes on the following:
• http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/sciencenow/3204/01.ht
ml
– What are mirror neurons? Explain the role that mirror neurons may play in how we understand and connect with each other.
– Describe the experiment with the monkeys and what it suggests about mirror neurons
– Describe the use and purpose of mirror neurons by humans
– Describe the experiment involving pictures of different facial expressions and what it suggests about mirror neurons
– The connection between mirror neurons and autism
– How mirror neurons have enhanced humans' evolutionary process and survival success.

Mirror Neurons – set of brain cells that fires both when an animal acts and when the animal observes the same action performed by another. Thus, the neuron
"mirrors" the behavior of the other, as though the observer were itself acting.
• the neurons that "fire" when a monkey does an activity also "fire" when the monkey observes the activity, suggesting that neurologically doing and watching are the same.
• humans use a similar "mirroring" response to translate what we see, so that we can relate to each other and the world. Mirror neurons tie us to each other's feelings as well as actions; thereby, potentially enhancing humans' evolutionary process and survival success y helping humans connect with and learn quickly from each other.
•
May be a connection between autism and mirror neurons, a developmental disorder that impairs language, communication and social interaction.

•
Conclusions:
– Learning can occur through observation and imitation (i.e. without conditioning or direct reinforcement)
• Applications:
– Parent’s role as models for children
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X_s9pG5CWXM&feature=related
• Rodney Atkins “Watching You” http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4K-wmQuWfrs
• Ugly Kid Joe “Cats in the Cradle” http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T3bht7S-3vI
– Media violence:
• fMRI studies:
– Exposure to violent movies linked to brain area involved in the inhibition of aggressive impulses (lowered activation)
• Violent video games:
– Reduces sensitivity to violence and suffering of victims
– Players more hostile, less forgiving and believe violence is
“normal”
– Can increase likelihood of aggression
– Conversely, prosocial models can have positive effects
• Prosocial video games:
– Players get into fewer fights at school and found to be more helpful

Process of associating two stimuli
Lightning
Process of associating a response & its consequence
Pulling candy machine lever
Thunder
Delivery of candy bar

Ivan Pavlov
Short Biography
20 years studying digestive system
30 years studying learning
1904 Nobel Prize in Medicine
Noticed that dogs would drool in anticipation of food.
What were dogs thinking or feeling?

Ivan Pavlov
What were dogs thinking or feeling?
Examine the phenomenon more objectively using Experiments !

Ivan Pavlov
Will the dog learn to associate the arrival of food with a neutral stimulus (e.g., a bell)?

Neutral Stimulus
Unconditioned Response
Unconditioned Stimulus
Conditioned Response
Conditioned Stimulus
NS - bell
UCR - drool in response to food (not learned)
UCS - food (triggers drool reflex)
CR - drool in response to sound of bell (learned)
CS - sound of bell (triggers drool reflex)

Examples of Classical Conditioning
• http://www.bukisa.com/videos/63827_the-pavlov-altoid-theory
• The Office
– NS (rebooting computer noise)  no response
– UCS (altoid) 
UCR (salivation/refreshes taste in mouth)
– NS (rebooting computer noise) + UCS (altoid) 
UCR
(salivation/refreshes taste in mouth)
– CS (rebooting computer noise) 
CR (salivation/need to refresh taste in mouth)

Examples of Classical Conditioning
• http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-
8331168072486928717#
• http://www.thepsychfiles.com/2008/02/episode-47-thelittle-albert-study-what-you-know-ismostly-wrong/
• Little Albert
– NS (white rat)  no response
– UCS (loud noise)  UCR (fear)
– NS (white rat) + UCS (loud noise) 
UCR (fear)
– CS (white rat) 
CR (fear)

• Acquisition – initial learning of the response
– At first, the white rat by itself caused no special response. After repeated pairings of the white rat with the loud noise, the white rat by itself gradually became more and more likely to cause a learned response
• Short-delayed conditioning – the NS begins just before the
UCS and stops at the same time as the UCS
– The white rat is presented just before the loud noise and is taken away as the loud noise ends.

• Extinction – decrease in CR without CS or unlearning a conditioned association
– The learned response (fear) probably became less common after Little Albert left John
Watson’s lab and the white rat was not presented with the loud noise

• Spontaneous Recovery – reappearance of the CR after some time period. Need additional extinction trials to breaks association completely
– After extinction, the presentation of the white rat may still have caused a learned response
(fear) following a long period in which the loud noise was not heard.

• Generalization – the tendency for organisms to respond similarly to similar stimuli as the
CS.
– Little Albert’s fear of anything white and furry.

• Discrimination – the ability to distinguish
(discriminate) between the CS and other stimuli
– Little Albert only being afraid of white rats – not brown rats or any other white animals.

Examples of Classical Conditioning
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HSCotdOh5WY
• Food/Taste Aversion
– NS (sight and taste of pickles)  no response
– UCS (contamination/sickness) 
UCR (aversion/disgust)
– NS (sight and taste of pickles) + UCS (contamination/sickness) 
UCR (aversion/disgust)
– CS (sight and taste of pickles) 
CR (aversion/disgust)
• Conditioned Taste Aversion (Sauce Bernaise Phenomenon) – readily learn an aversion to the taste (not to the sight of the associated restaurant, the plates, people you are with), even if you got sick hours after eating the food
– Violates the notion that for conditioning to occur, the UCS
(sickness) has to immediately follow the NS/CS (food)
• Biological Preparedness – degree to which biology has made it more easy or difficult to learn an association. Biological predispositions of each species dispose it to learn the particular associations that enhance its survival.

• Air Horn
– NS (saying word “can”)  no response
– UCS (horn/loud noise)  UCR (cringe/jump out of seat)
– NS (saying word “can”) + UCS (horn/loud noise) 
UCR (cringe/jump out of seat)
– CS (saying word “can”)  CR (cringe/jump out of seat)

Other Examples of Classical Conditioning
•
Michigan Fight Song
– http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H-fc5os23mI
– NS (Michigan Fight Song)  no response
– UCS (being pinched) 
UCR (cry)
– NS (Michigan Fight Song) + UCS (being pinched) 
UCR (cry)
– CS (Michigan Fight Song) 
CR (cry)
•
Slasher Movies
– NS (violence)  no response
– UCS (nude women) 
UCR (sexual arousal)
– NS (violence) + UCS ( nude women) 
UCR (sexual arousal)
– CS (violence) 
CR (sexual arousal)
•
Advertising
– NS (alcohol)  no response
– UCS (lots of friends, attractive people people) 
UCR (happy, desire)
– NS (alcohol) + UCS (lots of friends, attractive people) 
UCR (happy, desire)
– CS (alcohol) 
CR (happy, desire)
• Politics
– NS (politician)
– UCS (apple pie) 
UCR (feelings of warmth)
– NS (politician) + UCS (apple pie) 
UCR (feelings of warmth)
– CS (politician) 
CR (feelings of warmth)

Other Examples of Classical Conditioning
•
Every time you take a shower, someone in the house flushes the toilet causing the water to turn cold and you become cold. Now every time you hear a toilet flush, you get cold
– NS (toilet flush)  no response
– UCS (cold water) 
UCR (feel cold)
– NS (toilet flush) + UCS (cold water) 
UCR (feel cold)
– CS (toilet flush) 
CR (feel cold)
•
Fred has a fluffy down pillow with some of the down sticking out of the fabric. When he first tries out the pillow, a piece of down tickles his nose and he sneezes. This happens every time he goes to bed. Soon he sneezes every time he lays down on any kind of pillow.
– NS (pillow)  no response
– UCS (down tickles nose) 
UCR (sneeze)
– NS (pillow) + UCS (down tickles nose) 
UCR (sneeze)
– CS (pillow) 
CR (sneeze)
•
It is springtime and the pollen from the flowers causes you to sneeze. Soon you are sneezing every time you see a flower
– NS (flower)  no response
– UCS (pollen) 
UCR (sneeze)
– NS (flower) + UCS (pollen) 
UCR (sneeze)
– CS (flower) 
CR (sneeze)

Other Examples of Classical Conditioning
•
In order to treat bedwetting, a pad that is sensitive to dampness is placed under sheets.
When this pad becomes wet, it sounds an alarm and you wakeup. Eventually you don’t need the alarm to wake up, your bladder will wake you up
– NS (full bladder)  no response
– UCS (alarm) 
UCR (wake up)
– NS (full bladder) + UCS (alarm) 
UCR (wake up)
– CS (full bladder) 
CR (wake up)
•
The smell of food makes you hungry. Soon every time you go into the kitchen, you feel hungry
– NS (kitchen)  no response
– UCS (smell of food) 
UCR (hungry)
– NS (kitchen) + UCS (smell of food) 
UCR (hungry)
– CS (kitchen) 
CR (hungry)
•
When you see a scary movie, you always eat a box of thin mints. Now you find that eating a box of thin mints makes you feel scared.
– NS (thin mints)  no response
– UCS (watching a scary movie) 
UCR (feeling scared)
– NS (thin mints) + UCS (watching a scary movie) 
UCR (feeling scared)
– CS (thin mints) 
CR (feeling scared)

Other Examples of Classical Conditioning
•
An MIT student spent an entire summer going to the Harvard football field every day wearing a black and white striped shirt, walking up and down the field ten or fifteen minutes throwing birdseed all over the field, blowing a whistle and then walking off the field. At the end of the summer, it came time for the first Harvard home football game, the referee walked onto the field and blew the whistle, and the game had to be delayed for a half hour to wait for the birds to get off of the field. The guy wrote his thesis on this and graduated.
– NS (whistle/black-white striped shirt)  no response
– UCS (birdseed) 
UCR (birds eating)
– NS (whistle/black-white striped shirt) + UCS (birdseed) 
UCR (birds eating)
– CS (referee blowing whistle and wearing black-white striped shirt) 
CR (birds eating)

Examples of Classical Conditioning
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QO253RicE-E
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wwx-Q1tXlxM
• Jaws
–
Note: This is an example of second order conditioning – a conditioned stimulus functions as it were an unconditioned stimulus.
– First Order:
• NS (sharks)  no response (Easy to condition however due to sharp teeth and evolutionary predator cues our visual system processes)
• UCS (Blood Carnage - pictures, images, stories) 
UCR (fear)
• NS (sharks) + UCS (carnage) 
UCR (fear)
• CS (sharks) 
CR (fear)
–
Second Order: CS can become a new UCS
• NS (soundtrack - Dudah!..... Dudah! Dudah!)
• UCS (shark) 
UCR (fear)
• NS (soundtrack) + UCS (shark) 
UCR (fear)
• CS (soundtrack) 
CR (fear)

Examples of Classical Conditioning
• Drug Use
– NS (syringe)  no response
– UCS (drug) 
UCR (bio change, creates pleasure)
– NS (syringe) + UCS (drug)  UCR (bio change)
– CS (syringe)  compensatory CR (prepares for bio change – reduce body’s normal amount of NT to prepare for extra NT by drug)
– However, this is one reason for tolerance (need larger and larger amounts of the drug to feel the same effect and reasons for overdose – change scene or method, lose compensatory effect

• Acquisition
– NS (ocean)  no response
– UCS (jelly fish sting)  UCR (pain/fear)
– NS + UCS 
UCR
– CS (ocean) 
CR (pain/fear)
• Extinction
– Systematic desensitization
• Generalization
– Fear response to any ocean, any time of year, photos
• Discrimination
– Fear response is only to Gulf of Mexico at specific time of year
• Spontaneous Recovery
– Need numerous extinction trials to get rid of link

Classical Conditioning Behavior Therapies
• Counter-conditioning – uses classical conditioning to evoke new responses to stimuli that are triggering unwanted behaviors
– EX: Fear of being in a confined space, such as elevators
• Pairs the trigger stimulus (elevator) with a new response (relaxation)
– NS (elevator)  no response (response of fear at least)
– UCS (listening to music) 
UCR (relaxation/upbeat mood)
– NS (elevator) + UCS (listening to music) 
UCR (relaxation/upbeat mood)
– CS (elevator)  CR (relaxation/upbeat mood)
– Exposure Therapies – treats anxieties by exposing people (in imagination or actuality) to the things they fear and avoid. With repeated exposure, people can become less anxious to things that once petrified them.
• Systematic Desensitization – associates a pleasant relaxed state with gradually increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli.
– EX: Fear of public speaking
– Construct a hierarchy of anxiety-triggering speaking situations, speaking up in a small group of friends to panic provoking situations, such as having to address a large audience
– Next, using progressive relaxation, the therapist would train you to relax one muscle group after another, until you achieve a drowsy state of complete relaxation and comfort.
– Therapist pairs each anxiety arousing situation on hierarchy with relaxation, until you can move to a real situation.
• Virtual reality exposure therapy - anxiety treatment that progressively exposes people to simulations of their greatest fears virtually, such as airplane flying, spiders, or public speaking.

Classical Conditioning Behavior Therapies
Counter-conditioning – uses classical conditioning to evoke new responses to stimuli that are triggering unwanted behaviors
Aversive Conditioning associates an unpleasant state (such as nausea) with an unwanted behavior (such as drinking alcohol)

Classical Conditioning Practice
(pgs 28-29)
1. NS (dog bark)  no response
UCS (bitten)

UCR (whimper)
NS (dog bark) + UCS (bitten)

UCR (whimper)
CS (dog bark)  CR (whimper)
2.
NS (jar of pickles)
 no response
UCS (eating pickles)

UCR (salivate)
NS (jar of pickles) + UCS (eating pickles)  UCR (salivate)
CS (jar of pickles)  CR (salivate)
3.
NS (mutton – sheep meat)
 no response
UCS (poison)  UCR (nausea)
NS (mutton) + UCS (poison)  UCR (nausea)
CS (sheep)

CR (fear because expect to get nauseous)
4 . NS (saccharine flavored water)  no response
UCS (drug)  UCR (weakened immune system)
NS (saccharine flavored water) + UCS (drug)

UCR (weakened immune system)
CS (saccharine flavored water)

CR (weakened immune system)

Classical Conditioning Practice
(pgs 30-31)
1.
NS (song “tonight”)  no response
UCS (popped eardrum)

UCR (pain)
NS (song “tonight) + UCS (popped eardrum) 
UCR (pain)
CS (song “tonight” or any other song by Smashing
Pumpkins)

CR (pain) illustrates generalization
2.
NS (Mr. Williams)
 no response
UCS (yelled at)

UCR (nervous)
NS (Mr. Williams) + UCS (yelled at)

UCR (nervous)
CS (Mr. Williams)

CR (nervous) illustrates discrimination – only nervous when he sees Mr.
Williams
3.
NS (Pavlov)
 no response
UCS (lemonade mix)

UCR (salivate)
NS (Pavlov) + UCS (lemonade mix)

UCR (salivate)
CS (Pavlov)

CR (salivate) illustrates discrimination – only salivate at Pavlov’s name, not Watson’s or Skinner’s name
4.
NS (Space Mountain)
 no response
UCS (ill)

UCR (queasy stomach)
NS (Space Mountain) + UCS (ill)

UCR (queasy stomach)
CS (Space Mountain or any other roller coaster)

CR
(queasy stomach) illustrates generalization
5.
NS (Abe)  no response
UCS (love)

UCR (beating heart)
NS (Abe) + UCS (love)

UCR (beating heart)
CS (Abe – seeing him or seeing a picture of him)

CR
(love) illustrates generalization – can see him or see a picture of him and her heart starts to beat

Classical Respondent Behavior
Behavior occurs as an automatic response to stimulus.
Associating different stimuli that the organism does not control.
Operant Operant Behavior
Action that operates on environment to produce rewarding or punishing stimulus.
Associating your behavior with its’ consequences
(e.g., teaching a child to say “Please”)
Fear response to a white beard versus
Saying “Please” to elicit praise

• Discovering Psychology: Learning – start at 11:30 or 15:30. http://www.learner.org/vod/vod_window.ht
ml?pid=1529
• Take notes on the following:
– B.F. Skinner’s beliefs about free will!
– Psychology’s ABC’s
– Skinner Box
– Operant Conditioning

Operant Conditioning

Operant Behavior
• Learning an association between a response (behavior) and its consequence
(EX: studying hard and a high test-grade, bar pressing and food)
• Action that operates on environment to produce rewarding or punishing stimulus – instead of simply reacting to stimuli (Behavior/Response 
Stimulus)
– Also called Instrumental Learning – learning is controlled by consequences
•
Based on Law of Effect - actions that were rewarded become more likely to occur and actions that were punished or not reinforced become less likely to occur (Behavior

Consequence
 decrease or increase in behavior in future)
• Acquisition is based on shaping - gradual rewarding the organism as it approaches the desired behavior.
• Skinner’s ABCs

Operant Conditioning

Operant Behavior
• Skinner’s ABCs
– A (antecedent) = stimulus/environmental cues (situation) present at time of reinforcement. What is happening before behavior occurs?
– B (behavior - accidental)
– C (consequence) = reinforcement
– D (determines the frequency of deliberate behavior in future)
* Behavior is most likely to occur in situations similar to the one in which it has been reinforced

Skinner elaborated on Thorndike’s
Law of Effect
“Rewarded behavior is likely to reoccur”
B. F. Skinner
(1904-1990)
External influences, not internal thoughts
& feelings, govern behavior.
E. L. Thorndike

Fave Subjects Rats & Pigeons
Fave Operatus
Fave Procedure
Skinner Box
Shaping
Shaping
Guiding current behavior toward some desired behavior through successive approximations

- any event that increases the frequency of the preceding event
Positive Reinforcers
Introduce (+) stimulus
(e.g., food)
Negative Reinforcers
Remove (-) stimulus
(e.g., electric shock)
Reinforcers
strengthen behavior!

Operant Conditioning versus Punishment Matrix
Supply a stimulus (+) Remove a stimulus (-) Stimulus Type
Appetitive Stimulus
(something desired/good)
Aversive Stimulus
(something not desired/bad)

Operant Conditioning versus Punishment Matrix
Stimulus Type
Appetitive Stimulus
(something desired/good)
Supply a stimulus (+)
Positive Reinforcement
(Adding a good/desired stimulus – strengthens or encourages behavior in future. EX = presenting food, money, praise, attention, or other rewards)
Remove a stimulus (-)
Aversive Stimulus
(something not desired/bad)

Operant Conditioning versus Punishment Matrix
Stimulus Type
Appetitive Stimulus
(something desired/good)
Supply a stimulus (+)
Positive Reinforcement
(Adding a good/desired stimulus – strengthens or encourages behavior in future. EX = presenting food, money, praise, attention, or other rewards)
Remove a stimulus (-)
Negative Punishment
(Subtracting a good/desired stimulus – weakens behavior or discourages behavior in future.
EX = time-out, removing some pleasant stimulus or taking away privileges such as TV watching or use of automobile)
Aversive Stimulus
(something not desired/bad)

Operant Conditioning versus Punishment Matrix
Stimulus Type
Appetitive Stimulus
(something desired/good)
Aversive Stimulus
(something not desired/bad)
Supply a stimulus (+)
Positive Reinforcement
(Adding a good/desired stimulus – strengthens or encourages behavior in future. EX = presenting food, money, praise, attention, or other rewards)
Remove a stimulus (-)
Negative Punishment
(Subtracting a good/desired stimulus – weakens behavior or discourages behavior in future.
EX = time-out, removing some pleasant stimulus or taking away privileges such as TV watching or use of automobile)
Positive Punishment
(Adding a bad stimulus – weakens behavior or discourages behavior in future. EX = delivering a pain-producing or otherwise aversive stimulus, such as a spanking or an electric shock)

Operant Conditioning versus Punishment Matrix
Stimulus Type
Appetitive Stimulus
(something desired/good)
Aversive Stimulus
(something not desired/bad)
Supply a stimulus (+)
Positive Reinforcement
(Adding a good/desired stimulus – strengthens or encourages behavior in future. EX = presenting food, money, praise, attention, or other rewards)
Positive Punishment
(Adding a bad stimulus – weakens behavior or discourages behavior in future. EX = delivering a pain-producing or otherwise aversive stimulus, such as a spanking or an electric shock)
Remove a stimulus (-)
Negative Punishment
(Subtracting a good/desired stimulus – weakens behavior or discourages behavior in future.
EX = time-out, removing some pleasant stimulus or taking away privileges such as TV watching or use of automobile)
Negative Reinforcement
(Subtracting a bad stimulus – strengthens behavior or encourages behavior in future.
EX = removing or terminating some pain-producing or otherwise aversive stimulus, such as an electric shock, buzzer, )

Reinforcement vs. Punishment
Scenario #1:
• Negative reinforcement – “Since you cleaned your room, you will no longer have to stay inside!”
• Punishment – “Since you did not clean your room, you will have to stay inside!”
Scenario #2:
• Negative reinforcement – “Since you got to AP
Psych on time, you will not get a tardy detention!”
• Punishment – “Since you got to AP Psych late, you will get a tardy detention!”
Reinforcers ALWAYS strengthen behavior !
Punishments ALWAYS weaken behavior !

Reinforcement vs. Punishment
1. PR
2. NP
3. PP
4. PR
5. PR
6. NR
7. NR
8. NP
9. PR
10. NP or PP (However, time out is usually considered NP)
11. NR
12. NR
Reinforcers ALWAYS strengthen behavior !
Punishments ALWAYS weaken behavior !

Innately satisfying, not learned
(e.g., getting food, water, warmth, relief from pain)
Associated with primary reinforcers & learned
(e.g., $ can buy food, praise leads to feeling happy)
Reinforcers ALWAYS strengthen behavior !

POSITIVE REINFORCERS NEGATIVE REINFORCERS
PRIMARY SECONDARY PRIMARY SECONDARY
Food Money Electric shock Rejection
Intense heat Failure Water
Sex
Grades
Status
Warmth Praise
Pain of any sort
Suffocation
Criticism
Avoidance

Reinforce immediately preceding behavior (e.g., nicotine)
Reinforcement at some point after behavior occurs
(e.g., paychecks)
Reinforcers
strengthen behavior!

- every time behavior occurs (rare) or
not every time behavior occurs
(learning is slower but more resistant to extinction)

(a pigeon will peck 150,000 times without reward)
Fixed Ratio - reinforce every n responses
Variable Ratio - reinforce after ?? responses
Fixed Interval - reinforce after fixed time
Variable Interval - reinforce after ?? time http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I_ctJqjlrHA&feature=PlayList&p=483DE7E9
D04B2BFF&playnext=1&playnext_from=PL&index=3

• Behavior-based reinforcers (ratio = # of responses)
• Fixed Ratio = reinforce every “n” responses
– Factory workers make 10 clocks = earn $100
– Every time you get a 100% on a test = get $5
– Buy 3 sandwiches = get 4 th free
• Variable Ratio = reinforce after ?? responses)
– Finding parking in busy mall (you need to drive and look, not just wait)
– Most gambling behaviors (slot machines)
– Fly-fishing
– Perfect golf shot
– Selling vacuums door to door

• Time-based reinforcers (interval = time period to pass before you complete a behavior and get reinforcer (does not matter how many times you complete the action)
• Fixed Interval = reinforce after fixed time
– Students waiting near door at end of class, shuffling books near end of class
– Watching Gilmore Girls every Tuesday
– Doing extra credit before end of quarter
– Known quizzes and tests
– Work for salary – get paid on the 15 th of every month
• Low Response Rate – rapid responding near time of reinforcement
(cognitive processes - animals learn predictability)
• Variable Interval = reinforce after ?? time
– “pop’ quizzes
– regular fishing
– raising hand in class
– pacing while waiting for phone to ring
– waiting for doctor

Comparisons of Schedules of
Reinforcement
TYPE MEANING OUTCOME
Fixed
Ratio
Variable
Ratio
Fixed
Interval
Variable
Interval
Reinforcement depends on a definite number of responses
Number of responses needed for reinforcement varies
Reinforcement depends on a fixed time
Activity slows after reinforcement and then picks up
Greatest activity of all schedules
Activity increases as deadline nears
Time between reinforcement varies
Steady activity results

1.
VR
2.
FR
3.
VI
4.
FI
5.
VI
6.
VR
7.
FI
8.
FR
9.
VR
10. VI
11. FR
12. FI

Comparisons of Schedules of Reinforcement
SCHEDULE
Fixed interval
Fixed ratio
Variable interval
Variable ratio
FORM OF
REWARD
INFLUENCE ON
PERFORMANCE
EFFECTS ON
BEHAVIOR
Reward on fixed time basis
Leads to average and irregular performance
Reward tied to specific number of responses
Leads quickly to very high and stable performance
Fast extinction of behavior
Moderately fast extinction of behavior
Reward given after varying periods of time
Leads to moderately high and stable performance
Reward given for some behaviors
Slow extinction of behavior
Leads to very high performance
Very slow extinction of behavior

FI, VI, FR, or VR?
1.
When I bake cookies, I can only put one set in at a time, so after 10 minutes my first set of cookies is done. After another ten minutes, my second set of cookies is done. I get to eat a cookie after each set is done baking.
2.
After every 10 math problems that I complete, I allow myself a 5 minute break.
3.
I look over my notes every night because I never know how much time will go by before my next pop quiz.
4.
When hunting season comes around, sometimes I’ll spend all day sitting in the woods waiting to get a shot at a big buck.
It’s worth it though when I get a nice 10 point.
5.
Today in Psychology class we were talking about Schedules of Reinforcement and everyone was eagerly raising their hands and participating. Miranda raised her hand a couple of times and was eventually called on.
1.
FI
2.
FR
3.
VI
4.
VI
5.
VR

FI, VI, FR, or VR?
6. Madison spanks her son if she has to ask him three times to clean up his room.
7. Emily has a spelling test every Friday. She usually does well and gets a star sticker.
8. Steve’s a big gambling man. He plays the slot machines all day hoping for a big win.
9.
Snakes get hungry at certain times of the day. They might watch any number of prey go by before they decide to strike.
10. Mr. Vora receives a salary paycheck every 2 weeks.
11. Christina works at a tanning salon. For every 2 bottles of lotion she sells, she gets 1 dollar in commission.
12. Mike is trying to study for his upcoming Psychology quiz.
He reads five pages, then takes a break. He resumes reading and takes another break after he has completed 5 more pages.
6. FR
7. FI
8. VR
9.
VI
10. FI
11. FR
12. FR

FI, VI, FR, or VR?
13. Megan is fundraising to try to raise money so she can go on the annual band trip. She goes door to door in her neighborhood trying to sell popcorn tins. She eventually sells some.
14. Kylie is a business girl who works in the big city. Her boss is busy, so he only checks her work periodically.
15. Mark is a lawyer who owns his own practice. His customers makes payments at irregular times.
16. Jessica is a dental assistant and gets a raise every year at the same time and never in between.
17. Andrew works at a GM factory and is in charge of attaching 3 parts. After he gets his parts attached, he gets some free time before the next car moves down the line.
18. Brittany is a telemarketer trying to sell life insurance. After so many calls, someone will eventually buy.
13. VR
14. VI
15. VI
16. FI
17. FR
18. VR

• Sensitivity to Punishment (BIS)
– Score one point for a “yes” to each of the odd-numbered items
– Range = 0-24  higher scores reflecting greater sensitivity to punishment
• Sensitivity to Reward (BAS)
– Score one point for a “yes” answer to each of the evennumbered items.
– Range = 0-24  higher scores reflecting greater sensitivity to reward
Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory
– two biological systems in the brain
1.
Behavioral activation system (BAS) – responds to rewards and regulates approach behavior.
•
Accelerator motivates approach behavior.
A person with a highly reactive BAS is especially sensitive to incentive and reward and
• thus is vulnerable to impulsivity.
Reactions to going to a concert: high sensitivity to BAS – euphoria thinking about going; low sensitivity to BAS = knows it will be enjoyable but calm
2.
Behavioral inhibition system (BIS) – responds to punishments and regulates avoidance
• behavior. Brakes that stop behavior.
A person with a highly reactive BIS is especially sensitive to threat and punishment and
• thus is vulnerable to anxiety.
Student reactions to poor performance on a test: high sensitivity to BIS = panic; low sensitivity to BIS = hardly bothered.

• Measures our tendency to consider potential distant outcomes of current behaviors as well as the tendency for current behaviors to be influenced by these potential distant outcomes.
• Scoring:
– Reverse the numbers you gave in response to statements # 3, 4, 5, 9, 10,
11, 12.
– Total the numbers in front of all twelve items.
– Total scores can range from 12 to 60. Higher scores reflect greater consideration of future consequences.
• Research suggests that greater consideration of future consequences is positively linked to conscientiousness, optimism, hope and an internal locus of control. Higher scores are also positively related to general concern for health, and negatively related to cigarette and alcohol consumption. Those with higher scores were also more likely to be environmentally conscientious by recycling, driving a fuel-efficient car, and using a water-saving shower head.
• Marshmallow Test: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=amsqeYOk-w&feature=related

• Instinctive Drift – instinctive behaviors interfere with learned behaviors.
Animals cannot be trained to do anything.
– Pigeons easily learn to flap their wings to avoid being shocked and to peck to obtain food, because it is natural for them to flee with their wings and eat with their beaks. However, they have a hard time learning to peck in order to avoid a shock or to flap their wings to obtain food. Biological constraints predispose organisms to learn associations that are naturally adaptive.
– Miserly Raccoons - Training some raccoons to deposit coins in a piggy bank. They were successful in shaping the raccoons to pick up a coin and put it into a small box, using food as the reinforcer. However, when they gave the raccoons a couple of coins, an unexpected problem arose: the raccoons wouldn’t give the coins up. They would sit and rub the coins together like so many little misers. Associating the coins with food had brought out the raccoons’ innate food washing behavior. Raccoons often rub things together to clean them.

Why would parents want to use reinforcement over punishment? Carrot or Stick Approach?
• Problems with Punishment:
• Punishment does not guide toward acceptable behavior (doesn’t tell you what you should do)
• Behavior is not forgotten – merely suppressed (may reappear in other situations). Punishment + reinforcement = more effective
• Triggers strong emotional responses (fear, anxiety, anger)  disrupt normal functioning

Does reinforcement always work to increase behavior?
• NO! Why?
– Overjustification Effect: Promising a reward for doing what one already likes to do.
• The intrinsic motivation might be lost. Humans must recognize the reinforcer has value and is effective in changing their behavior; therefore, undermining the intrinsic motivation.
– EX: Earn a full ride to play sports; however, the athlete starts to hate the sport they play even though they are being paid. Now must play the sport for the scholarship.
Playing the sport became overjustified.
– EX: Drummer quits band REM at the height of their success. He reports that he has “lost the love” for the music. Reports later that the $, touring were not enough.
Music lost its appeal. The act of playing music became overjustified

Rats can learn maze even without reinforcement
Cog Map rats perform as well as Reinforced rats

• E.C. Tolman – experiment with rats.
• Some rats went through maze for food goals, while others were given no reinforcement for several days.
• After 10 days, rewards were put in with the rats that had previously been given no rewards for 2 or 3 trials.
• Those rats reached the food box as quickly as the rats that had been getting reinforcement for over a week.
• Rats learn about mazes in which they roam even if they are unrewarded for doing so.
Rats learn about their environments in the absence of reinforcement.

Operant + Classical Conditioning
• Escape Learning – an organism acquires a response that decreases or ends some aversive stimulation.
– Shuttle Box – cage with two compartments connected by a doorway, which can be opened and closed by the experimenter.
Animal learns to escape a shokc by running to the other compartment. Negative reinforcement
• Avoidance Learning – an organism acquires a response that prevents some aversive stimulation from occurring. Escape learning often leads to avoidance learning.
•
*Distinguish classical from operant conditioning by asking: Is the organism learning associations between events that it doesn’t control
(classical conditioning)? Or is it learning associations between its behavior and resulting events (operant conditioning)?

Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Review Exercises: Classical Conditioning
NS = rolled up newspaper, UCS = spanking, UCR = fear, CS = rolled up newspaper, CR = fear.
Principle: Nothing special beyond simple acquisition. Perhaps generalization to others holding newspapers.
NS = sight of monkeys, UCS = attack, UCR = pain, CS = sight of monkeys, CR = apprehension, tense. Principle: Extinction is occurring because of repeated exposure to the CS (sight of monkey) without another exposure to the US (attack). Additionally, you might note that a bit of
counter-conditioning is occurring-- she is feeling calm, positive feelings while being exposed to a stimulus (monkeys) that used to cause fear.
NS = screech of tires, UCS = car accident, UCR = tense, scared, CS = screech of tires, CR = tense, scared. Principle: Higher-order conditioning is occurring here-- The dangers of a car accident have been well-learned, even if never experienced. However, the mental images of an accident become a powerful CS in their own right. Discrimination-- given the context of the situation
(accompanying stimuli), screeching tires have better ability to predict possible danger at an intersection than at a race track.
NS = Donna, UCS = romantic relationship, UCR = arousal, CS = Donna, CR = arousal. Principle:
Again, a bit of higher-order conditioning occurring. Jack had come to expect (sexual) stimulation within a relationship-- a connection made through experience, expectations, etc. Initially,
extinction, because of no stimulation (CR) occurred in the presence of Donna (CS). The other principle, spontaneous recovery, occurred when he saw her again after a delay of time. That's the reemergence of a conditioned response after it has been extinguished (and why people should be very cautious at high school reunions!)
NS = taste, sight, and smell of chicken, UCS = bacteria/virus, UCR = sick, nauseous, CS = taste, sight, smell of chicken, CR = sick, nauseous Principle: Generalization is happening-- not only does he react to chicken, but other foods that are similarly "fowl." This is the opposite of stimulus discrimination.

Stimulus-Response
Review Exercises: Operant Conditioning
Reinforcement vs.
Punishment
Schedules of
Reinforcement
1.
S
2.
R
3.
S
4.
S
5.
R
6.
R
7.
S
8.
S
9.
S
10. R
11. R
12. S
1.
PR
2.
NP
3.
PP
4.
NR
5.
PR
6.
PP
7.
NP
8.
NR
9.
PR
10. PP
11. PP
12. NP
13. PR vs NP
1.
VR
2.
FI
3.
FR
4.
VI
5.
FI
6.
FR
7.
FR
8.
FR
9.
VI
10. VR