Chapter 30: How animals Move
NEW AIM: What types of motor systems have evolved?
I. Ciliates and Flagellates
A. Unicellular organisms w/o skeletal-muscular systems
B. Protozoans (unicellular heterotrophic protists) and primitive algae
flagellate
ciliate
Chapter 30: How animals Move
NEW AIM: What types of motor systems have evolved?
I. Ciliates and Flagellates
A. Unicellular organisms w/o skeletal-muscular systems
B. Protozoans (unicellular heterotrophic protists) and primitive algae
9+2
9+0
(9 + 2 arrangement within flagella and cilia; 9 + 0 in basal bodies/centrioles)
Chapter 30: How animals Move
NEW AIM: What types of motor systems have evolved?
II. Pseudopodia
A. Used by amoeba to move
B. Cell extensions (no microtubules)
pseudopod
Chapter 30: How animals Move
NEW AIM: What types of motor systems have evolved?
IIB. Chemotaxis vs. Phototaxis
A. Chemotaxis – process by which a cell directs their movement
depending on a chemical in the environment – taxis = to move (hence
the word taxi).
Ex. 1. Movement of sperm towards the egg (egg secretes chemicals that sperm are attracted to);
2.Movement of macrophages to a site of bacterial infection (broken cells release a chemical attractant)
3. Movement of bacteria to a high concentration of glucose
These are all examples of positive chemotaxis
(move towards the chemical)
There can also be negative chemotaxis
(move away from the chemical).
Chapter 30: How animals Move
NEW AIM: What types of motor systems have evolved?
IIB. Chemotaxis vs. Phototaxis
b. Phototaxis – process by which an entire organism directs their
movement depending the stimulus of light (this is NOT a plant moving
towards light, which is called phototropism).
Ex. 2. Moths or fruit flies attracted to light
Movement
Ex. 1. Algal cell moves toward light
(positive phototaxis)
Chapter 30: How animals Move
NEW AIM: What types of motor systems have evolved?
http://www.biology.ualberta.ca/facilities/multimedia/uploads/zoology/oligochaete.swf
III. Hydrostatic skeletons
A. Fluid held under pressure in a closed body compartment
B. Helps protect other body parts (cushion from shocks)
Fig. 30.1
C. Gives body shape
D. Gives support for muscle action
E. Cnidarians (hydra) and annelids
(earthworms)
(setae)
Fig. 18.7
Earthworms crawl by peristalsis
Each segment expands and contracts independently
Chapter 30: How animals Move
NEW AIM: What types of motor systems have evolved?
III. Hydrostatic skeletons
A. Fluid held under pressure in a closed body compartment
B. Helps protect other body parts (cushion from shocks)
C. Gives body shape
D. Gives support for muscle action
E. Cnidarians (hydra) and annelids
(earthworms)
Fig. 30.2
Hydrostatic skeleton of hydra in 2 stages
Chapter 30: How animals Move
NEW AIM: What types of motor systems have evolved?
IV. Exoskeleton
A. Hard external skeleton covering all the muscles and
organs of some invertebrates
B. Made of chitin (modified glucose polymer = carbohydrate) in
Arthropods – chitin also forms cell walls of fungus
Chitin is a polysaccharide of N-acetylglucosamine
C. Calcium carbonate in mollusks
(glucose with an acetyl group)
D. Protection
E. Limits growth (periodic molting and deposition of new
exoskeleton necessary)
F. Muscles attach to inside of exoskeleton
Fig. 30.2
JOINTED APPENDAGES of Arthropods - from Greek árthron,
"joint", and podós "foot”)
Chapter 30: How animals Move
NEW AIM: What types of motor systems have evolved?
IV. Exoskeleton
Anatomy of a basic mollusk:
Chapter 30: How animals Move
NEW AIM: What types of motor systems have evolved?
V. Endoskeleton
A. Hard or leathery support tissue situated AMONG the soft tissues of animals
B. Sponges (Porifera)
i. Reinforced by tough protein fibers (spongin) or hard calium salts/silica called spicules
Calcium salts
A rigid sponges thanks to spicules
Spongin - fibrous protein
Chapter 30: How animals Move
NEW AIM: What types of motor systems have evolved?
V. Endoskeleton
A. Hard or leathery support tissue situated AMONG the soft tissues of animals
C. Echinoderms (sea stars, sea urchins, etc…)
i. Have hard plates beneath skin (the spikes are not an exoskeleton)
Sea Urchin
Dead sea urchin (endoskeleton)
Chapter 30: How animals Move
NEW AIM: What types of motor systems have evolved?
V. Endoskeleton
D. Vertebrates
i. Site of muscle attachment
- permits movement when muscle contracts bringing bones closer together
ii. Protection and overall support
- bones enclose vital organs
- Ex. Rib cage surrounds thoracic organs
(heart and lungs)
- Ex. Skull and vertebral column surround
brain and spinal cord
iii. Contains both cartilage and bone
- Both connective tissue
Chapter 30: How animals Move
NEW AIM: What types of motor systems have evolved?
V. Endoskeleton
D. Vertebrates
iv. cartilage
- firm, but flexible
- makes up skeletons of lower vertebrates (rays and sharks)
- principle component of embryonic skeletons in higher vertebrates – our
skeletons are cartilage as a fetus, which later ossifies (becomes bone) – new
systems built on old ones…
- NO blood vessels (avascular) or nerves
- takes a longer time to heal than bone
Fig. 30.2E
Amphibian endoskeleton (cartilage in blue)
Chapter 30: How animals Move
NEW AIM: What types of motor systems have evolved?
V. Endoskeleton
D. Vertebrates
iv. cartilage
- Location
- articular surface of the bones (sites where 2 bones contact each
other), the rib cage, the ear, the nose, the bronchial tubes/trachea
and the intervertebral discs.
Cartilage in yellow
Chapter 30: How animals Move
NEW AIM: What types of motor systems have evolved?
V. Endoskeleton
D. Vertebrates
v. bone
- skeleton of mature higher vertebrates
- composed of calcium phosphate salts and strands of collagen protein
- cells in bone
1. Osteoblasts - build bone (bbb)
2. Osteoclasts - break down bone
You should know which hormones
interact with each cell type…
- Osteoporosis - imbalance between
osteoblasts and osteoclasts leading to weak
bones
Chapter 30: How animals Move
NEW AIM: What types of motor systems have evolved?
V. Endoskeleton
D. Vertebrates
v. bone
- spongy vs. compact bone
- yellow marrow vs. red marrow
Fig. 30.5
Fig. 30.3
Chapter 30: How animals Move
NEW AIM: What types of motor systems have evolved?
V. Endoskeleton
D. Vertebrates
v. bone
- highly vascular unlike cartilage
Fig. 30.5
Each osteon consists of concentric layers, or lamellae,
of compact bone tissue that surround a central canal,
the Haversian canal through which blood vessels and
nerves run.
Lacuna = the region where osteocytes reside.
Chapter 30: How animals Move
NEW AIM: What types of motor systems have evolved?
V. Endoskeleton
D. Vertebrates
v. bone
- highly vascular unlike cartilage
Fig. 30.5
Each osteon consists of concentric layers, or lamellae,
of compact bone tissue that surround a central canal,
the Haversian canal through which blood vessels and
nerves run.
Lacuna = the region where osteocytes reside.
Chapter 30: How animals Move
NEW AIM: What types of motor systems have evolved?
V. Endoskeleton
D. Vertebrates
v. bone
- connected at joints
- can be movable (your elbow) or immovable
(bones of the skull)
Fig. 30.3
Chapter 30: How animals Move
NEW AIM: What types of motor systems have evolved?
V. Endoskeleton
D. Vertebrates
v. bone
- axial (blue - skull, ribs, vertebrae) vs. appendicular
(yellow - appendages) skeleton
Fig. 30.3
Chapter 30: How animals Move
NEW AIM: What types of motor systems have evolved?
VI. Muscle contraction and movement
A. The skeleton and muscles interact in movement
B. Muscle system is an EFFECTOR of the nervous system
C. MUSCLES CAN ONLY CONTRACT (SHORTEN)
Origin of bicep
D. Insertion of a muscle
i. Portion attached to bone that moves
Insertion of bicep
E. The ORIGIN is the attachment
to the non-moving bone
Origin of tricep
Insertion of tricep
Fig. 30.7
Chapter 30: How animals Move
NEW AIM: What types of motor systems have evolved?
VI. Muscle contraction and movement
E. Extensor
i. Muscle that extends or straightens the bones at a joint
Ex. Tricep is an extensor - it contracts and straightens arm at elbow
F. Flexor
i. Muscle that bends a joint to an acute angle
Ex. Bicep is a flexor - it contracts and bends arm at elbow
Flexor
Bicep and Tricep are
antagonistic muscles
ALL animals have pairs of
antagonistic muscles
Extensor
Fig. 30.7
Chapter 30: How animals Move
NEW AIM: What types of motor systems have evolved?
VI. Muscle contraction and movement
G. Tendons (dense connective tissue)
i. Connect muscles to bones
Ex. Achilles tendon
Fig. 30.7
Chapter 30: How animals Move
NEW AIM: What types of motor systems have evolved?
VI. Muscle contraction and movement
H. Ligaments
i. Connect bones to bones
Chapter 30: How animals Move
NEW AIM: What types of motor systems have evolved?
VI. Muscle contraction and movement
I. Three types of muscles
i. smooth
ii. cardiac
iii. skeletal
- movement caused by
CONTRACTION in ALL 3
types
- Contraction caused by
sliding of actin and myosin
filaments past each other
inside cells…
Chapter 30: How animals Move
NEW AIM: What types of motor systems have evolved?
VI. Muscle contraction and movement
I. Three types of muscles
i. Smooth muscle
a. involuntary muscles (autonomic NS) in arteries and veins, gastrointestinal
tract, bladder, uterus
b. nonstriated
- simply means that actin and myosin do not
have clear organized arrays
c. smooth muscle cells connected by gap
junctions in tissues (allow action potential to
pass from one cell to next) - electrical synapse
d. Single nucleus per cell
Chapter 30: How animals Move
NEW AIM: What types of motor systems have evolved?
VI. Muscle contraction and movement
I. Three types of muscles
ii. Cardiac muscle
a. Single nucleus per cell
b. striated
- actin and myosin have clear organized arrays
c. connected by gap junctions in tissues (allow
action potential to pass from one cell to next) electrical synapse
d. Involuntary (autonomic NS)
Chapter 30: How animals Move
NEW AIM: What types of motor systems have evolved?
VI. Muscle contraction and movement
I. Three types of muscles
iii. Skeletal muscle
a. Voluntary (intentional physical movement; somatic NS)
b. Muscle cell = single, large, multinucleated fiber
c. striated
- actin and myosin have clear organized arrays
d. Stimulated by nerves at neuromuscular
synapses
e. Action potential along surface of muscle
cell stimulates calcium release into
cytoplasm, which in turn causes contraction
Chapter 30: How animals Move
AIM: How do muscle fibers contract?
VIII. Neuromuscular junction
Fig. 30.10
Chapter 30: How animals Move
AIM: How do muscle fibers contract?
IX. How does a motor neuron make a muscle fiber contract?
1. Action potential (AP) reaches synaptic knob
2. Acetylcholine released into synaptic cleft
3. Sodium moves through muscle fiber
(just like a neuron)
4. AP travels along T-tubules
(membranous tubules that fold in
through cells) deep into the fiber
Neuromuscular junction video on website
Fig. 30.10
Chapter 30: How animals Move
AIM: How do muscle fibers contract?
IX. How does a motor neuron make a muscle fiber contract?
1. Action potential (AP) reaches synaptic knob
2. Acetylcholine released into synaptic cleft
3. Sodium moves through muscle fiber
(just like a neuron)
4. AP travels along T-tubules
(membranous tubules that fold in
through cells) deep into the fiber
5. AP causes Ca++ to be
released from sarcoplasmic
reticulum (SR = ER) of muscle
cell (myocyte) into cytoplasm
Muscle action potential video on website
Fig. 30.10
Chapter 30: How animals Move
AIM: How do muscle fibers contract?
IX. How does a motor neuron make a muscle fiber contract?
Acetylcholine will be broken down by
the membrane-bound enzyme
(protease) acetylcholinesterase in
the neuromuscular junction in order to
terminate the signal to the muscle.
Fig. 30.10
Chapter 30: How animals Move
NEW AIM: How do muscle fibers contract?
VII. Muscle contraction
A. Skeletal muscle
i. Muscle composed of bundles of fibers (cells)
ii. Muscle fibers (cells) contain numerous
myofibril (contractile protein structures)
- striation = alternating light and dark band of
myofibrils
iii. Sarcomere - repeating unit of the myofibril
(region b/w two Z lines) – you see sarco- you think muscle
- thin filament: two strands of actin polymers
and one strand of regulatory protein
- thick filament: staggered array of multiple
myosins
- dark band vs. light band
Fig. 30.8
Chapter 30: How animals Move
NEW AIM: How do muscle fibers contract?
Sarcomere contraction video on website
VII. Muscle contraction
B. Sliding-filament model
Fig. 30.9
Chapter 30: How animals Move
AIM: How do muscle fibers contract?
VII. Muscle contraction
B. Sliding-filament model
1. ATP binds to myosin head (causes detachment
from actin)
2. ATP hydrolyzes to ADP and Pi
- energy used ratchet back the head
- head is now in an unstable (high energy) state
3. Head binds to actin
4. ADP and Pi are released resulting in the power
stroke
5. ATP binds, head releases, repeat again, but grab
the next actin closer to Z-line
Sliding filament video on website
Fig. 30.9
Chapter 30: How animals Move
AIM: How do muscle fibers contract?
VII. Muscle contraction
B. Sliding-filament model
1. ATP binds to myosin head (causes
detachment from actin)
2. ATP hydrolyzes to ADP and Pi
- energy used ratchet back the head
- head is now in an unstable (high energy) state
3. Head binds to actin
4. ADP and Pi are released resulting in the power
stroke
5. ATP binds, head releases, repeat again, but grab
the next actin closer to Z-line
Aside: Rigor Mortis
– when an animal dies, it becomes stiff (hence why we call dead people stiffs).
This is because ATP is needed to release the myosin head from the actin
filaments. No ATP, no release, muscle can’t relax.
Fig. 30.8
Chapter 30: How animals Move
AIM: How do muscle fibers contract?
IX. How does a motor neuron make a muscle fiber contract?
6. Myosin binding sites on actin usually blocked by regulatory strand
(troponin and tropomyosin)
7. Ca++ binds to part of regulatory strand (troponin) of thin filament,
which causes tropomyosin to move off myosin binding site so myosin can
bind.
Muscle action potential video on website
Fig. 30.10
Chapter 30: How animals Move
AIM: How do muscle fibers contract?
IX. How does a motor neuron make a muscle fiber contract?
http://www.tvermilye.com/pmwiki/pmwiki.php?n=Animation.Video12
Fig. 30.10
Chapter 30: How animals Move
AIM: How do muscle fibers contract?
X. Vocabulary for a skeletal muscle cell
A. Sarcolemma: plasma membrane
B. Sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR): endoplasmic reticulum
C. Sarcomere: single unit of the myofibril
D. Sarcoplasm: cytoplasm
Chapter 30: How animals Move
AIM: How do muscle fibers contract?
XI. Malfunctions
A. Arthritis
- inflammation of joints causing swelling and severe pain
- causes: autoimmune, infection (septic), gouty arthritis, etc…
B. Tendonitis
- inflammation of tendon usually at site of attachment to bone
caused by physical stress and irritation (common in athletes)
EXTRAS
I. Heart Attack:
A. Coronary Thrombosis
B. Angina pectoris
- narrowing of coronary arteries resulting in an inadequate
supply of blood (oxygen) to heart muscle and intense pain
in chest/shoulder/arm (referred pain).
- typically caused by arthrosclerosis
EXTRAS
II. oxyhemoglobin
A. Hemoglobin with oxygen bound
III. Bronchitis
A. Inflammation of bronchi, caused by bacteria, virus or other
irritant (i.g. tobacco smoke)
EXTRAS
IV. Asthma
- chronic disease where airways constrict, become inflamed,
and are lined with excessive mucus.
- triggered by exposure to an
allergen, tobacco smoke, cold
or warm air, perfume, pet
dander, moist air, exercise or
exertion, emotional stress.
- genetic / environmental
- allergic response
EXTRAS
IV. Asthma
Albuterol (Salbutamol)
- typical used in inhalers
- stimulates -2 adrenergic
(adrenalin) receptors, which
relaxes airway smooth
muscle
EXTRAS
V. CO2 carried mostly in blood as bicarbonate (carbonic acid),
which acts as a buffer in the blood (pH 7.4)
VI. Habits
- acquired by repetition, which established pathways for
nerved impulse transmission, which permit rapid automatic
responses to various stimuli.
- performed without thinking
- DO NOT confuse with habituation
EXTRAS
VII. Filament
EXTRAS
VIII. Photolysis
EXTRAS
VIII. Enzyme/Substrate relationship
EXTRAS
IX. Enzyme/Temperature and Enzyme/pH Relationship