 Use
this powerpoint presentation to
complete your viewing guide handout
per topic.
 At the end of each topic, take time to
answer the Keystone Biology practice
questions on your handout and discuss.
 Good Luck!
COMPOUNDS
Organic –
*carbohydrate
*lipid
*nucleic acids
*proteins
has
C&H
Inorganic
CO2
H2O
O2
NO C & H
Water is a POLAR
molecule
-weak HYDROGEN
bonds attract one
another between
molecules of water
-Gives water its
special properties
Monomers are
small units
that make up
Polymers in the
process
called
POLYMERIZATION
macromolecule Elements Monomer/
polymer
Carbohydrate
C:H:O
Monosacchar
1:2:1
ide
Polysacchari
de
Lipids
C, H, little Glycerol &
O
fatty acids
Nucleic acids
CHOP
Nucleotides
Proteins
C H O S N Amino acids
which form
polypeptides
(protein)
function
Quick / main
energy
source
Long term
energy (fats);
cell
membrane
Genetic
materials
Structure &
enzymes
Chemical reactions have 2 parts: reactants and
products
Reactants – compounds that come together to
start the reaction
Products – compounds
produced by the
reaction
Enzymes are
biological
catalysts that
speed up
chemical
reactions and
lower activation
energy
Active Site is where the reactant
meets the enzyme to lower activation
energy
Enzymes can be affected by two main
environmental factors:
Temperature
pH
PROKARYOTES




No nucleus
Cytoplasm, cell membrane,
DNA, ribosomes
Smaller & simpler
Examples: bacteria
EUKARYOTES




True nucleus
Cytoplasm, cell membrane,
DNA, ribosomes, ER, Golgi,
nucleolus, vacuole, other
organelles
Larger & more complex
Examples: plants & animals
 Organelles
– tiny
structures that carry
out functions of the
cell
 Functions such as
energy, building or
transporting material,
storing food or
wastes.
 Diffusion
– movement of molecules from
an area of high concentration to low
concentration
• Equilibrium – balanced state
Osmosis – diffusion of water across a
selectively permeable membrane
Isotonic – same strength on both sides
of the membrane
Hypertonic –
above
strength;
Higher
concentration
of solute;
Not enough
water on the
inside of the
cell (shrivels)
Hypotonic: below strength;
lower concentration of solute;
full of water inside the cell
Facilitated Diffusion – movement of
larger particles through special
CHANNEL PROTEINS.
NO ENERGY is required.
Active Transport –
movement across
membrane
AGAINST the
concentration
gradient.
Needs ENERGY to
occur.
Sodium Potassium Pump
(active transport example)
Why do cells divide??
 get bigger
 repair
 reproduction
G1 = growth phase
S = DNA Synthesis
G2 = make more
organelles
Prophase:
*chromosomes are
visible
*nuclear envelope
breaks
Metaphase:
*chromosomes line up
in middle
*spindle fibers attach
Anaphase: spindle
fibers pull sister
chromatids apart
Telophase:
chromosomes loosen
and nuclear envelope
re-forms
Results in 2 2Ncells
Daughter cells
genetically identical to
the parent cell
Produces cells with haploid (single
set) chromosomes
Human gametes – sperm & egg –
have 23 chromosomes each.
Meiosis is a
REDUCTION
DIVISION
2N (diploid) to
N (haploid)
2 sets of
divisions
Meiosis I and
Meiosis II
Meiosis I
Interphase
Prophase I – homologous chromsomes pair
up and form tetrads (4 sister chromatids)
CROSSING OVER – parts of chromatids
may exchange genes creating new
combinations of alleles
Meiosis Results in Genetic Variation
crossing over
independent assortment –
chromosomes line up randomly during
metaphase I and metaphase II
genes of different traits can segregate,
or spread out, independently during the
formation of gametes
errors in meiosis can produce harmful
effects
AUTOTROPH
HETEROTROPHS
 PRODUCERS
 CONSUMERS
 -Creates
 Can’t
own
chemical energy
(photosynthesis)
make own
food, must obtain
energy from
another source
 Plants, algae,
bacteria
 Animals, fungi
Energy Molecules:
Lipids: long term
Carbohydrates: short term energy
ATP: INSTANT energy form
Photosynthesis
Photo=light
synthesis=production
Process in which the sun’s energy is
converted into stored energy in the form of
carbohydrates
LIGHT DEPENDENT
 Need
light
 Photolysis
(breaking water
molecule apart
with light)
 Set up H+ ions
LIGHT
INDEPENDENT
 Dark
reactions
 Calvin Cycle
 Carbon fixation:
fix carbon dioxide
and make it
glucose
•Occurs in chloroplasts
•Sunlight energy splits
H20 molecule
(PHOTOLYSIS)
•releases H+ ions to
set up a concentration
gradient
•releases oxygen as a
by product
CO2 goes through
multiple steps to
combine and
rearrange into a 6
carbon sugar
(glucose)
-NOT BREATHING!
-process in which the energy of food
(glucose) is converted to usable energy
(ATP) in the presence of oxygen
-all cells undergo cellular respiration
starts with Glycolysis
glyco – sugar
lysis – split
-splits 6 carbon glucose into two 3 carbon
pyruvate
-invest 2 ATP yield 4ATP (2ATP net gain)
-
Glycolysis
No oxygen available
(anaerobic)
Alcohol fermentation
lactic acid
fermentation
Oxygen
(aerobic)
Krebs Cycle
Electron
Transport
Chain
Fermentation – replenishes items needed for
glycolysis when NO OXYGEN is available
Krebs Cycle – takes
pyruvic acid (3 carbons)
and breaks it down to CO2
Electron Transport Chain
– takes H+ ions & pushes
them through a transport
protein
that movement
through protein charges
ATP
Net Gain = 36 ATPs
Functions of DNA
•stores genetic info
•copies genetic
info for new cells
produced during
cell division
•transmits genetic
info from one
generation to the
next
Monomer = nucleotide
nucleotide includes a
5 carbon sugar
(deoxyribose), a
phosphate and a
nitrogen base
(adenine, thymine,
guanine, cytosine)
Double helix
Bases pair up
adenine ---- thymine
cytosine ---- guanine
process of taking a strand of DNA and
making an identical copy
-
Monomer is a nucleotide
with a 5carbon sugar
RIBOSE, phosphate &
nitrogen base (A, G, C &
URACIL)
Single stranded
3 types mRNA, tRNA,
rRNA
messengerRNA (mRNA) – copy instructions
from DNA
ribosomalRNA (rRNA) – located in ribosome,
helps with protein synthesis
transferRNA (tRNA) – transfers amino acids
to ribosomes to create proteins
Protein Synthesis
•process of making proteins by stringing
together amino acids to form polypeptide
chains
•transcription (RNA synthesis) copies a
small section of DNA (a gene) creating
mRNA
•uses base pairing rules
•translation reading instructions from
mRNA to make protein
four base pairs on mRNA (AUGC) code for
20 amino acids that build proteins
-
-3 consecutive bases on mRNA are called a
CODON & code for specific amino acids
-AUG – start codon begins protein
synthesis
-UAA, UAG, UGA – stop codons end
protein synthesis
AUG CGA CUU UGA
Mistakes or
changes in the DNA
that are heritable
(able to be passed
down to the next
generation
Point mutation –
changes in one or a
few nucleotides
Involve changes in the number or structure
of the chromosomes-often causes severe
effects
 Deletion
– loss of all or
part of chromosome
 Duplication – extra
copies of part
 Inversion
– reverse
direction of part of
chromosome
 Translocation – part
breaks off and
attaches to another
Gregor Mendel bred pea plants and observed
their characteristics such as shape, color, etc.
 Fertilization
– joining male & female
reproductive cells
 Self pollination – pollen from one plant
fertilizes egg cell from the same plant
 Pure breed (true-breeding) – if self
pollination produces offspring identical
to the parent
 Cross pollination – pollen from one plant
fertilizes egg of another plant
 GENETICS
– scientific study of heredity

P
generation – parent generation
 F1
– first filial – offspring of the P generation
 F2 – second filial – offspring of the F1
 Dominant
– allele
shows up alone
 Recessive – hidden
allele unless there
are 2
 Genotype – genetic
makeup (alleles)
 Phenotype – physical
appearance
 Homozygous – 2
same alleles
 Heterozygous – 2
different alleles
 Y=yellow
 yy=green
 YY
or yy or Yy
 Yellow
 yy
 Yy
or green
or YY
How to Punnett
 Some
alleles are neither dominant nor
recessive but are controlled by other
factors
 Such as
• Incomplete dominance
• Codominance
• Multiple alleles
 One
allele is not
dominant over the other,
instead the heterozygous
genotype shows an
intermediate phenotype
 In
the
heterozygous
genotype, both
alleles are
seen
 Some
genes
have more than
2 possible
alleles
 The
INDIVIDUAL
only carries 2
alleles though
A
trait controlled by 2 or more genes with
a wide variety of phenotypes
 Process
of change in a
species over time
 Charles Darwin – theory
of evolution by natural
selection
• Populations change in
response to environmental
pressures and they become
adapted to new conditions
and they change over time.
 Genetic Variation
 Overproduction
of Offspring
 Struggle for Existence (selection)
 Differential Survival & Reproduction
(adaptation & Survival of the Fittest)
Adaptation – any heritable
characteristic that increases an
organism’s ability to survive and
reproduce (it’s advantageous)
 Separating
2 populations further and
further until they can no longer
interbreed to produce fertile offspring
 Physical
boundary
 Occurs
times
because species mate at different
 Differences
in
behavior, courtship,
coloring, morphology,
etc.
 In
the case pictured,
the species became
isolated by the food
they became
accustomed to eating.
A
decrease in genetic variation caused
by the formation of a new population by a
small number of individuals from a larger
population
 Fossils
 Biogeography
 Homologous
structures
 Analogous structures
 Vestigial structures
 Embryology
 Genetics and molecular biology
 Record
shows that species have
gradually changed over time
 Distribution
of life forms
over a
geographical
area
 Similar
species share
a common
time & place
 Inherited
and shared by related species
 Body
parts that share a common function
but NOT a common structure
 Inherited
from
ancestors
but have
lost all or
most of
their
original
function
 Similar
patterns of
embryological
development
 Genes
nearly identical in almost all organisms
 Ecology
– study of
how organisms
interact with each
other and their
environments
 BIOTIC
– living or
used to be living
 Ex: bear, oak tree,
bacteria, dead leaf
 ABIOTIC
– never
been living
 Ex.: sun, wind, rocks,
water
 Heterotrophs
–
consumers of energy
 Primary, secondary,
tertiary, quaternary
 Autotrophs
–
producers of energy
 Photosynthesis or
chemosynthesis
 Food Web
Depicts the
flow of
energy
through an
ecosystem
 Detritivore
 Decomposer
• Consume non-living
• Breaks down non-
organic matter, such as
leaf litter, waste
products, dead bodies
• AKA scavengers
• Examples: millipedes,
condors
living matter into
simpler parts that can
be reused.
• Examples: bacteria,
fungi
 Trophic
level – feeding level of an
organism
 Amount of available energy decreases as
you move up in trophic level (10% Rule)
 habitat
= food, water, space, shelter,
required for an organism to live
 Niche = how organisms use its habitat to
survive and reproduce
 Resources = necessity of life; water,
nutrients, light, food, space
 Limiting factor = any chemical or physical
factor that limit the existence, growth,
abundance or distribution of an
individual or population
 Organisms
of the same of different
species attempt to use the same resource
in the same place at the same time
 Interaction
in
which one
organism
captures and
feeds
(predator) on
another (prey)
 Relationship
in which 2 organisms live
closely together
 One
organism (parasite) relies on
another (host) for nourishment or other
benefit
2
or more species benefit
Blind pistol
shrimp dig
burrows for
goby fish who
keep watch over
them
 Relationship
where one species benefits
and another is unaffected
 Endemic
• Species found in its
originating location
and is generally
restricted to that
geographical area
 Non-Native
Species
• Normally living
outside a distribution
range that has been
introduced through
either deliberate or
accidental human
activity
 Can become INVASIVE
 Threatened
– decrease in numbers
could become endangered if no actions
are taken
 Endangered – population is dropping,
may become extinct
 Extinct – completely disappears from its
area on the planet
A
series of predictable and orderly
changes within an ecosystem over time
 Get
a good night’s sleep!
 Eat a healthy breakfast (or a pop tart)
 Read all directions and answer the
question they ask!
Trust your instincts!!!