Speed of Light & Creation
And God said, “Let there be light,” and there
was light. And God saw that the light was
good. And God separated the light from the
darkness. God called the light Day, and the
darkness he called Night…. (Genesis 1:3-5)
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Speed of Light
• The speed of light, “c”, is a “fundamental
constant of the physical universe” as in
Einstein’s famous equation, E=Mc2
• “c” occurs in literally hundreds of equations
defining all sorts of physical phenomena. It is
related to almost every other physical constant in
Physics (Plank’s Constant, gyromagnetic constant,
radioactive decay constants, etc.)
• According to Einstein, “c” was the only true
constant in physics. In the Theory of Relativity,
Time, Mass (& Energy), & Space itself are all
related through equations with “c” in them.
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History
• With few exceptions, people of antiquity
(especially Aristotle) believed the speed of light
was infinite.
• Galileo and a few others thought the speed of
light might be finite and measurable.
• In 1657, Olaf Roemer undertook observations of
the occultation of the moons of Jupiter as they
orbited the giant planet. After 20 years of
observations, he published a paper asserting the
speed of light must be finite.
• Since that time, 16 different experimental
methods have measured the speed of light.
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Roemer’s Experiment
Remember, Roemer was using wooden clocks & the orbital diameters were not well established.
Jupiter year = 12 Earth years
Jupiter day = 10 hours
Orbital Radius =
389,165,000 km
Earth orbital
radius =
150,000,000 km
Minimum
observational
distance “D” =
239,165,000 km
(778 seconds)
Maximum
observational distance
= 539,165,000 km
(1753 seconds)
X (Jupiter with 4 visible moons with
Galilean telescopes)
(Jupiter has 65+ moons
D
& 4 rings, but most
were discovered by
fly-by satellites or
O (Earth)
space telescopes.)
Orbits of moons
Io = 1.8 d
Europa = 3.6 d
Ganymede = 7.8 d
Callisto = 16.7 d
Plot of time of observation for a moon; the distance of observation
variation (Earth’s orbital diameter) divided by the time variation gives “c”.
1 cycle = 1.083 years
History (continued)
• Since 1930 (& the general acceptance of the
Theory of Relativity), “c” has been accepted as constant
& invariant at 3 X 105 km/sec (186,000 miles/sec or 1
foot/nanosecond)
• Since 1960, there have been hundreds of experiments
to precisely measure “c”
• In 1971, “c” was established as 299,792 km/s & time
was defined by Cesium clock standards; this made the
measurement of “c” more difficult because if “c” varies,
it also affects the Cesium standard, making variations
undetectable unless time if measured by another
method.
• 1n 1983, “c” was defined as 299,792,458 m/s based
upon precision laser measurements
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Background of the Issue
• 1n 1977, Barry Setterfield, an undergraduate in physics,
conducted a study of the historical measurements of
the speed of light. He was expecting to find a nominal
distribution around the established value, perhaps with
differences introduced by the methods of
measurement.
• Instead, he found that “c” was decreasing over time.
• Dr. Alan Montgomery & Dr. David Lambert, intrigued by
Setterfield’s paper, analyzed the data and concluded
lightspeed was significantly higher in the historical
past.
• The Naval Observatory has been contributing to this
issue continuously since 1972, having developed 4
different techniques for measuring “c”.
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Naval Observatory Measures
(Precision measures are in meters per second)
299,792,458.xxxx
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Modern Measurements (from 1947)
Measurements include uncorrected
instrument/experimental errors
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Modern Measurements (from 19471983) with approved corrections
Notice improvements in experimental error limits
Best-Fit Curve
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Accepted Values of “c”
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
307,500 +/- 5400 km/s (Roemer, corrected) (1677)
303,430 +/- 750 km/s (Bradley) 1727
303,320 +/- 65 km/s (Delambre) 1738
302,220 +/- 620 km/s (Britannica) 1771
315,300 or 313,300 +/-10,000 km/s (Fizeau) 1849 *
299,921 +/-13 km/s (Harvard) 1876 (incl. Michelson)
299,802 +/-15 km/s (Michelson) 1925
299,794.2 +/-1.4 km/s (Aslakson) 1951
299,792.5 +/-0.02 km/s (NRC/NBS/IAU) 1967/8
299,792,460 +/-0.006 m/s (NRC/NBS) 1973
299,792,458.6 +/-0.0003 m/s (NBS) 1983
* Fizeau was widely published, but his experiments are widely disputed because of gross
experimental errors. Other results, 305,650 & 298,000 km/s were not widely published.
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Plot of Accepted Values
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Implications for the Past
• Assuming that the physical processes causing the changes
in “c” are consistent, “c” was at least:
–
–
–
–
–
–
2.5% faster 300 years ago
30% faster 2000 years ago
100% (2X) faster 3000 years ago (600,000 km/s)
4X faster 4000 years ago (1,200,000 km/s)
Over 10,000,000X faster 6000 years ago (3X1012 km/s)
This is based on a cosecant squared best fitting of the historical
measures; the best fit curve (a hyperbolic curve) was not
considered because it becomes infinite somewhat over 6000
years ago (i.e., even faster than the cosecant squared curve)
• All radioactive decay data is grossly overestimating historic
age (radioactive decay rates are coupled with “c” such that
estimated age from these techniques is inversely related)
• The oldest age of the Universe by radiographic data given
the projected “c” in the past is less than 10,000 BC (but it
could be younger still).
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Best-fit Graph of ‘c’
Cosecant-Squared Function
(partial)
(Dr. Alan Montgomery & Dr. David Lambert)
Moses
Flood
The Beginning
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Best-fit Graph of “c”
Cosecant-Squared Function
(partial)
OR
Hyperbolic?
What is causing the change in “c”?
Without knowing the mechanism causing the change,
many different functions might describe the past
behavior of “c”. But a guess at the function can help
to discover the possible mechanism…maybe.
Alternatives?
Moses
Flood
The Beginning
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Christ
Abram
David
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Why is Decay of “c” Controversial?
• The best data is based on VERY recent measurements (since 1983 –
older measures are ‘suspicious’). Almost all measurements prior to
1961 need corrections for experimental errors.
• The oldest measurements are only 300 years old (compared to
4500 years of historical time) – this is less than 7% of historical
time. The plentiful & most trustworthy day is less than 0.7% of
historical time.
• There are disagreements about the best fit curves – is there a
better fit that allows for different conclusions (such as small
variations or oscillatory behavior) rather than infinite in ‘recent
time’?
• The implications are extensive, largely unexplored, and contradict
‘commonly held beliefs’. (Remember, it took 50 years for Roemer’s
conclusions to be accepted. This idea was only introduced in 1977.)
• If true, what is causing the decrease in ‘c’?
More About Light: Red Shift
• In studying light, scientists noticed that the Red Shift was quantized.
– Hubble thought Red Shift was caused by Doppler shift from the
expansion of the Universe, a remnant of the Big Bang
– Quantized Red Shift implies Hubble’s assumption is wrong
– Each quanta of Red Shift has been shown to represent a 72 km/s Dopplerassumed change in “c”; more than 60 steps have been found in 399 data
sets (Guthrie & Napier – 1995).
– The Sky Survey of Red Shift showed the values are in concentric shells.
This indicates either the Earth is close to the center of whatever causes
Red Shift (Dr. Russell Humphreys) or the effect is universally observed
regardless of position in the universe.
– Quantized Red Shift also shows that the radius of the Universe is fixed.
• Red Shift data disputes the Big Bang assumption, i.e., the primary
cause of Red Shift cannot be due to Doppler shifts (observed Doppler
shifts are minor contributions to overall Red Shift)
• Together with the decreasing “c”, Red Shift data shows the Universe is
both much smaller and younger than assumed in modern science.
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More on Red Shift
The picture shows the emission lines
of Hydrogen (top), Helium, Mercury,
and Uranium (bottom). These spectra
are shifted toward the red as the
source becomes farther from Earth.
[Population 1 stars (such as our sun),
have up to 3% heavier elements.
Population 2 stars have less than 0.1%
heavier elements.]
(Only about 2% of all stars are
Population 1.)
Red Shift means that these emission
are “more red” than expected, making
the source to appear to be rushing
away from us at high speed (Hubble’s
Law). If a stellar object were coming
toward us, its spectrum would be Blue
Shifted.
• The Red Shift Data is consistent with the Universe being “stretched forth”
rather than “banged” into existence. See Job 9:8; 37:18; Psalm 104:2;
Isaiah 40:22; 42:5; 44:24; 45:12; 48:13; 51:13; Jeremiah 10:12; 51:15; &
Zechariah 12:1.
Red Shift is Quantized
Tifft’s Data (1972)
(repeated with Cocke 1987)
|
| - attributable to Doppler
(Guthrie & Napier)
This is the Red Shift phenomenon.
The amount of Red Shift is
quantized and is independent of
the direction of observation.
Computers greatly simplify
collecting Red Shift data.
Tifft’s data was very controversial,
especially since such large Red
Shifts were reported & because it
refutes the prime assumption of
Hubble’s Law – Doppler shift as the
cause.
In 1995, Guthrie & Napier sought to disprove Tifft’s report by using the space telescopes
& the numerous results of the Sky Survey together with enhanced corrections for local
motions. Instead of refuting Tifft, they confirmed his findings, extending the data to 60
Red Shift points & demonstrating that the peaks above are much sharper than expected.
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Red Shift Implications
• Red Shift has been separately confirmed with accuracy using the 21
cm emission line of neutral Hydrogen through radio-telescopes.
• Quantized red shift has been observed even with galactic pairs
(galaxies orbiting around each other or colliding with each other)
and binary stars (stars orbiting around each other).
• Radio-telescope surveys have confirmed the concentric nature of
red shift phenomena around the Earth.
• Red Shift is NOT caused by Doppler from an expanding Universe
sourced from a Big Bang
• Red Shift appears to be caused by a stretching forth of the Universe
with resultant relaxation of the “stretching tension”. This can be
examined through Quantum Mechanics (but is only well explained
by Stochastic Electrodynamics (SED), not so well by Quantum
Electrodynamics (QED))
– QED is the “Standard Model”, SED is relatively new and more
controversial (but it also works better).
• If Red Shift is caused by the stretching of the Universe, what is the
implication of Isaiah 34:4 & Revelation 6:14?
“X” Degrees Kelvin (symbolic particle states)
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Zero Point Energy (ZPE)
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5
4
3
2
Zero Point Energy is the energy
of elementary particles at
absolute zero (0 degrees Kelvin).
According to Heisenberg's Uncertainty
Principle, we can only know the
position and velocity of a particle to
a limited degree of precision.
Because of ZPE, every particle has a
velocity even at absolute zero as well
1
as a definable positional uncertainty.
However, molecules are frozen in
0
relationship to each other. The velocity
< Positional Uncertainty >
increases with temperature, but the
particle state changes in discrete steps.
These discrete steps in state are
quantized states, examined by Quantum
Mechanics.
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Zero Point Energy (ZPE)
• ZPE is the residual energy at absolute zero, 0 K (particles must still have motion
& energy even when frozen)
• ZPE is driven by Plank’s Constant, “h”, which is inversely proportional to “c”
• ZPE upper bound is 10110 joules/cm3 in a vacuum, which is greater than all of
the energy radiated by all of the stars in our galaxy (& perhaps the Universe)
(the upper bound has increased over past 100 years)
• ZPE upper bound can be directly measured, & is increasing consistently with
the decrease in “c”
• ZPE is basic to quantum electrodynamics (QED), stochastic electrodynamics
(SED), & quantum astrophysics
• ZPE may explain the cosmic background radiation (CBR)
• ZPE is linked to the existence & behavior of gravity by SED
• ZPE considerations predict that if neutrinos have mass, then “c” must be
decreasing with time. In 1998, it was affirmed that neutrinos have mass.
• ZPE upper bound changes appear to imply the rate of the expansion of the
universe is increasing rather than decreasing if you apply Big Bang assumptions.
However, other experiments & consistent interpretations of the data indicate
the universe is “flat” – i.e., neither expanding nor contracting.
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Is the Universe Expanding or
Contracting (& if so, at what rate)?
• Big Bang creation: it must be expanding.
– The rate of expansion must be decreasing because of the mutual
drag of gravity.
– Eventually, the rate of expansion could stop & the Universe could
start to implode (fall in on itself) based on its space-time curvature.
– All components should be getting farther away from each other.
– Light from distant objects should be red-shifted due to Doppler.
• Stretched forth creation: it should be neither expanding nor
contracting (i.e., flat).
– Components may interact with each other through mutual
gravitational attraction.
– Light from distant object should be red-shifted, but not due to
Doppler.
• Are there other cosmological alternatives? – maybe, BUT…
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Stochastic Electrodynamics (SED)
(Why do I care?)
• New (since 1994) theories originating in SED:
– Explain the existence of mass based on ZPE flux
– Show that ZPE changes give rise to quantized Red Shift in “c”
consistent with the measured values (ergo, Red Shift is not
caused by an expanding Universe nor Doppler shift)
– Show how radioactivity arises in atoms, allowing reconciliation
of different radioactive decay rates for different elements
– Predict that neutrinos have mass (demonstrated in 1998)
– Show that all forces can be derived without inventing nonobservable subatomic particles to mediate singularities in the
Standard Model (based on QED)
– Allow a Grand Unified Field Theory (GUFT) reconciling all known
forces with observed astrophysical properties (which also
requires a creation event of stretching rather than big banging).
– (According to Colossians 1:16-17, Christ is the GUFT)
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A History of “c” Based in SED
(one of many possible that reconcile a young universe to
radioactive age estimates)
8x1011CV
end of Day 1
Population 2 stars created
Average “c” over 1st 4 days of Creation
= 4x1011CV
Using these values, radioactive decay rates can be reconciled to be
self-consistent (i.e., Carbon, Strontium, Thorium, etc. methods all
yield the same, consistent results).
The differences in the composition of Population 1 & 2 stars is explained,
Population 2 stars will have an apparent age of ~1.4x1012 atomic days
(= 3.84 billion years) greater than the population 1 stars. The overall age
of the Universe will appear to be nearly 14 billion years.
(Current apparent upper age of the universe is 13.7 billion years.)
end of Day 2
end of Day 3
1.3x107CV end of Day 4
Population 1 stars (including our sun) created
1.0x107CV end of Day 7
Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 4 Day 5 Day 6
Day 7
(Remember 1000 years = 365,000 days)
4x CV 2000 years later
(Abraham’s time)
A View of the Universe
ZPE boundary
Perceived Universe
(a miniscule bubble
within God at slightly
higher energy than
background.)
“Power of God”
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Summary
• Data from hundreds of measurements of “c” by 16 methods
& thousands of measures of related physical constants by 25
other methods all show a decrease in “c” over time at
statistically significant levels.
• Direct implications (among thousands) include:
– Young age of the Universe (<< 12,000 years) (Bible ~6000 years).
– Big Bang cosmology is incorrect; stretched forth Universe is more
credible & IAW the Bible.
– Size of the Universe is smaller than assumed, and most probably
is not expanding (or contracting) at all. (Relatedly: space-time is
not changing.) The increasing rate of expansion (obtained from
red shift data assuming a Doppler mechanism) is very wrong.
– Radioactive dating methods are inconsistent with each other
unless (1) decreasing “c” & (2) a young Universe is accepted
(which means you must also reject evolutionary formation of
heavy elements); then, all radioactive data can be brought into
agreement.
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Summary (2) – on Reconciling Quantized
Red Shift Data Across Physics
• 1984, T.C. Van Flandern (U. S. Naval Observatory), “If the
Universe had constant linear dimensions, in both dynamical
and atomic units, the increase of redshift with distance (or
equivalently, look-back time) would imply an increase in “c”
at past epochs, or that “c” was decreasing as time moves
forward.”
• 1987, Troitskii (Radiophysical Research Institute, Gorky),
“The agreement with fundamental physics laws is achieved
by introducing the evolution of a number of other
fundamental constants synchronously with the variation of
the speed of light.”
• (Summary: It only works if the speed of light is decreasing
from the beginning. Galactic motion, Einstein Gravitation, &
space-time expansion are ruled out.)
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More Summary
• If “c” is decreasing, all evolutionary models are invalidated & all
assumptions needed for evolution are proven false.
–
–
–
–
The basis for the evolution of stars & galaxies is disproved.
The basis for the evolution of heavy metals is disproved.
The Big Bang hypothesis is disproved.
The age of the universe is less than 10,000 BC.
• No implication of “c” decreasing contradicts any assertion of the
Bible
• Red Shift Cosmology puts Earth (& man) near the center of the
Creation.
• Neutrinos with mass (reported 1998) require “c” to be decreasing
(& Plank’s Constant to be increasing).
• Ephemeris in atomic clocks, planets, & distant satellites are all
consistent with “c” decreasing.
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Direct Impacts on the Philosophy of
Science
• Assuming that there is no God (& related dismissal of
the truth of the Bible) prior to formulating hypotheses
have led to false hypotheses & erroneous
interpretations of data.
– You may not assume that there is no God (His existence is
not directly proved, but He is the most reasonable
explanation)
– Hypotheses must be formulated to allow for the existence
of God and assumptions must avoid His exclusion.
• A more careful reading of the Bible might lead to more
successful hypotheses and experiments (i.e., return to
the way science was conducted in its foundation).
If these matters had been known to Charles Templeton, he probably would not have
turned away from the ministry of the Gospel. He was deceived by the untrue &
unrevealed assumptions of ‘modern’ science.
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Other Philosophical Issues
• Competing multiple ‘Universe’ theories.
–
–
–
–
Foam: (multiple bubbles) on the ZPE ocean
Multiple universes in other dimensions
Universe of universes interconnected by Worm Holes
Inverted Black Holes, etc.
• Ultimate questions:
– What is the source of the concept? (Pure imagination)
– What evidence is there to support any of these
speculations? (NONE)
– What mathematics will support any concept? (NONE)
– What connection is there to REALITY? (NONE)
– What is the Scriptural Support? (NONE)
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