Zhores Alferov
Semiconductor Revolution
in the 20th Century
St Petersburg Academic University —
Nanotechnology Research and Education Centre RAS
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Introduction
Semiconductor research in 1930th
Transistor discovery
Discovery of laser–maser principle and
birth of quantum optoelectronics
Invention and development
of the silicon chips
Heterostructure research
“God-made” and “Man-made” crystals
Problems and future trends
2
Polytechnical Institute
Ioffe seminar at the Polytechnical Institute. 1916
3
Yakov Frenkel
4
One of the last
Ioffe photo.
September 1960
5
Laboratory demo model
of the first bipolar transistor
Schematic plot of the first
point-contact transistor
6
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1956
"for their researches on semiconductors
and their discovery of the transistor effect"
William Bradford
John
Walter Houser
Shockley
Bardeen
Brattain
1910–1989
1908–1991
1902–1987
7
8
9
10
11
W. Shockley and A. Ioffe. Prague. 1960.
12
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1964
"for fundamental work in the field of quantum electronics,
which has led to the construction of oscillators
and amplifiers based on the maser-laser principle"
Charles Hard
Nicolay
Aleksandr
Townes
Basov
Prokhorov
b. 1915
1922–2001
1916–2002
13
14
15
Lasers and LEDs on p–n junctions
January 1962: observations of superlumenscences in GaAs p-n junctions
(Ioffe Institute, USSR).
•
Sept.-Dec. 1962: laser action in GaAs and GaAsP p-n junctions
(General Electric , IBM (USA); Lebedev Institute (USSR).
Light intensity
•
Wavelength
“+”
n
EF
p
n
Cleaved mirror
GaAs
Eg
p
LD
n
LD
h
p
EF
“–”
Condition of optical gain:
EnF – EpF > Eg
16
The Nobel Prize in Physics 2000
"for basic work on information and communication technology"
“for developing semiconductor
heterostructures used in high-speed- and
opto-electronics”
Zhores I.
Alferov
b. 1930
“for his part in the
invention of the
integrated circuit”
Herbert
Kroemer
Jack S.
Kilby
b. 1928
1923–2005
17
18
19
First integrated circuit/notebook
20
Patent of the first
integrated circuit
by R. Noyce
21
Factory sales of Electronics and IC
1000
Sales ($ billions)
Sales in the United States
100
10
(a) Factory sales
of Electronics
(b) Integrated
circuits
Digital MOS
1
Invention Beginning
of transistor of IC
Digital
bipolar
Linear
0.1
1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990
Year
S.M. Sze,
J. Appl. Phys.
Vol. 22 (1983)
(a) Factory sales of Electronics in the United States over the past 50 years
and projected to 1990.
(b) Integrated circuit Market in the United States.
22
Changing composition of work force
in the United States
Period I
Period II
Period III
50
Agriculture
Industry
40
Percentage
Information
30
20
Service
S.M. Sze,
J. Appl. Phys.
Vol. 22 (1983)
10
0
1860
1900
Year
1950
1990
23
Penetration of technology
Penetration of technology into
the industrial output
System organization
software design
Electromechanical
design
1860
Electronic
circuit
design
1900
Year
Logic
design
1950
1990
S.M. Sze,
J. Appl. Phys.
Vol. 22 (1983)
Penetration of technology into the industrial output versus year for four
periods of change in the United States electronics industry.
24
Moore's law I: device downsizing
8
10 nm
First silicon transistor
Texas Instruments
introduced the first
silicon transistor
n 1954
Small talk
The transistors in
Intel's Pentium 4
processor are just
45 nm in size
7
10 nm
Vacuum tube
The first active
electronic device to
be invented was
the vacuum tube
Size matters
Transistors in the
first microprocessor
(the Intel 4004)
measured 10 µm
6
10 nm
5
10 nm
The first Integrated circuit
Jack Kilby developed
the first integrated
circuit in 1958
4
10 nm
How low can you go?
Further downsizing
may not prove to be
economically viable
3
10 nm
100 nm
10 nm
Trade-off
Smaller devices
suffer from larger
leakage currents
1900
1950
1960
1970
1980
H. Iwai, H. Wang, Phys. World Vol. 18, 09 2005
1990
2000
2010
2020
25
Moore's law II: chip density
The road ahead
Further increase in
chip density relies on
new technologies
Intel Itanium
The world's most
powerful chip can
perform hundreds of
millions of operations
per second
10
Gordon Moore
Co-founder of Intel,
who identified
the trend for
chip density
40 years ago
10
First microprocessor
The Intel 4004
contained 2300
5
transistors
10
10
4
10
6
10
10
10
9
Larger memory
Memory chips
contain more
transistors than
processors
8
7
Intel Pentium 4
By 1995 the Pentium
chip contained
42 million transistors
Intel Pentium
The first Pentium
processor contained
5.5 million transistors
1970
1980
1990
2000
H. Iwai, H. Wang, Phys. World Vol. 18, 09 2005
2004
2010
2020
26
Increase in the power density of VLSI chips
Chip maximum power density
(W/cm2)
1000
Itanium: 130 W
100
Pentium Pro: 30 W
10
Pentium 4: 75 W
Pentium III: 35 W
Pentium II: 35 W
Heating plate
(surprassed)
Pentium: 14 W
I486: 2 W
I386: 1 W
1
1.5
1
0.7
0.5 0.35 0.25 0.18 0.13
0.1
0.07
Feature size (µm)
B. Jalali et. all., OPN, June 2009
27
Fundamental physical phenomena
in classical heterostructures
(a)
Ec
Electrons
One-side Injection
Ec
Fn
Fp
Ev
(b)
Propozal — 1948 (W. Shokley)
Experiment — 1965 (Zh. Alferov et al.)
Holes
Electrons
Fn
Ec
Fp
Ev
Superinjection
Theory — 1966 (Zh. Alferov et al.)
Experiment — 1968 (Zh. Alferov et al.)
Holes
(c)
Electrons
Diffusion in built-in
quasielectric field
Theory — 1956 (H. Kroemer)
Experiment — 1967 (Zh. Alferov et al.)
28
Fundamental physical phenomena
in classical heterostructures
(d)
Electron and optical confinement
Fn
Ec
Propozal — 1963 (Zh. Alferov et al.)
Experiment — 1968 (Zh. Alferov et al.)
Fp
Ev
(e)
Ec
Ev
Superlattices and quantum wells
Theory — 1962
(L.V. Keldysh)
First experiment —1970 (L. Esaki et al.)
Resonant tunnelling — 1963
(L.V. Iogansen)
In Quantum Wells — 1974
(L. Esaki et al.)
29
Heterojunctions — a new kind
of semiconductor materials:
Long journey from infinite interface recombination
to ideal heterojunction
Energy gap (eV) [300 K]
2.8
Lattice matched
heterojunctions
AlP
•
2.0 GaP
1.2
AlSb
InP
GaAs
GaSb
0.4
5.40
•
Ge
•
InAs
5.56
5.72
5.88 6.04
Lattice constant (Å) [300 K]
6.20
Ge–GaAs–1959
(R. L. Anderson)
AlGaAs–1967
(Zh. Alferov et al.,
J. M. Woodall &
H. S. Rupprecht)
Quaternary HS
(InGaAsP & AlGaAsSb)
Proposal–1970
(Zh. Alferov et al.)
First experiment–1972
(Antipas et al.)
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Energy gap (eV)
3.0
2.4
1.8
1.2
0.6
0
–0.6
5.4
5.6
5.8
6.0
6.2
Lattice constant (Å)
6.4
6.6
Energy gaps vs lattice constants for semiconductors IV elements,
III–V and II(IV)–VI compounds and magnetic materials in parentheses.
Lines connecting the semiconductors, red for III–V, and blue for others,
indicate quantum heterostructures, that have been investigated.
Nitrides have not been yet included.
31
Schematic representation of the DHS
injection laser in the first CW-operation at
room temperature
Metal
SiO2
p+ GaAs 3 µm
p Al0.25Ga0.75As 3 µm
p GaAs 0.5 µm
p Al0.25Ga0.75As 3 µm
n GaAs
Metal
120 µm
200 mA
250 µm
Copper
32
Heterostructure solar cells
Space station “Mir” equipped with heterostructure solar cells
33
Heterostructure microelectronics
Heterojunction Bipolar Transistor
Ec
Ec
F
Suggestion—1948 (W.Shockley)
Theory—1957 (H.Kroemer)
Experiment—1972 (Zh.Alferov et al.)
AlGaAs HBT
Ev
Ev
HEMT—1980 (T.Mimura et al.)
Ec E
1
10 ns
E0
Ev
Ev
NAlGaAs-n GaAs Heterojunction
Propagation delay
Ec
F
1 ns
100 ps
J–J
10 ps
100 nW
1 µW
10 µW
100 µW
1 mW
10 mW
Power dissipation
Speed-power performances
34
Heterostructure Tree
Advanced LAN
(by I. Hayashi, 1985)
Bidirectional
Video Network
Wide Band
Optical Transition
Wavelength Division
Multiplexity
One Chip
Repeater
All Optical Link
Monolithic
OEIC
Switch
Super High Speed
Computer
Optical
Connection
Between
LSIs
Optical
Wiring
Inside
LSI
MultiWavelength PIN-FET
LD
MSI
LD-Driver
Phased
Laser Disk
Array
SSI
Laser Printer
LD
Integration
LSI
of Optical
and Electronic
Detector
Devices
Optical Sensor
Array
HEMT
Integration Integration of
HBT
of Optical
Bifunctional
Devices
Devices
APD
GaAs
High
FET
LD
IC
PIN
Power
Integration
Electronics
LED
Technology
One Chip
Computer
HS
Solar
Cell's
Device
Technology
Substrate
Crystal
Epitaxi
Thin Film
Process
Technology
Material
Characterization
35
Liquid Phase Epitaxy of
III–V compounds
Heater coils
H2
GaAs
substrate
GaAs
source
Solution
Pull rod
Quartz reactor
5 nm
InAsGaP thin layer in
InGaP/InGaAsP/InGaP/GaAs
(111 A) structure with
quantum well grown by LPE.
TEM image of the structure.
36
Molecular Beam Epitaxy (MBE)
III–V compounds
Riber 32P
ion pump
e-gun
substrate
unit
residual gas
analyzer
ion gauge
shutters
RHEED
screen
effusion
cells
MESFET, HEMT
Schematic view of MBE machine
MBE — high purity of materials,
in situ control, precision of
structure growth in layer
thickness and composition
QCL, RTD, Esaki-Tsu SL
PD, LED, LD
....
37
MOCVD growth of III–V compounds
Schematic view of MOCVD chamber
Inlet
Quartz sealing
Streamlines
Waffer
Aixtron AIX2000 HT
(up to 6 x 2” wafers)
Production oriented growth
machine for the fabrication
of device structures
Epiquip VP50-RP
(up to 1 x 2” wafer)
Flexible growth machine
for laboratory studies
Al2O3
Unique method of wafer rotation
leads to high uniformity of structure
in wafer and high reproducibility
from wafer to wafer
HEMT
LED
LD
MOCVD — high purity of materials,
large-scale device-oriented technology
38
Impact of dimensionality on
density of states
P
N
3D
Egap
Energy
Lz
N
2D
Density of states
P
Lz
P
N
1D
Lx
E0 E1
E00 E01
Lz
P
N
0D
Lx
Ly
E000 E001
39
Quantum cascade lasers
Band diagram
Layer sequence
Emission spectrum at room
temperature
Light- and Volt-current
characteristics
12
80
Pulsed
room temperature
8K
0.01
8
150K
40
200K
4
Power, mW
60
0.1
Voltage, V
Optical power (log., a.u.)
1
20
0.001
250K
8.5
8.6
Wavelength, µm
8.7
0
0
0
0.5
1.0
Current, A
1.5
40
Quantum dot as superatom
conduction
band
electron
levels
photon
phonon
photon
forbidden
gaps
valence
band
Atom
Semiconductor
kT
hole
levels
Quantum dot
41
Milestones of semiconductor lasers
105
Jth (A/cm2)
104
4.3 kA/cm2
(1968) Impact of Double
Heterostructures
103
900 A/cm2
(1970)
Impact of
Quantum Wells
40 A/cm2 Impact of
(1988) Quantum
160 A/cm2
Dots
(1981)
19 A/cm2
10
(2000)
Impact of SPSL QW
6 A/cm2
(2002)
0
1960 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 00 2005
Years
102
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Evolution and revolutionary changes
Reduction of dimensionality results in improvements
42
“Magic leather”
energy consumption
Total throughout the world
Reserves
Energy Carrier
(known and Consumption Period of
extractive)
rate
exhaust
(GWatt  year)
(GWatt)
(years)
Oil
200 000
4 600
40–50
Gas
150 000
2 200
60–70
1 000 000
3 000
300–400
Coal
Nuclear Power
90 000
750*
120
(thermal reactors)
Total
Nuclear Power
1 440 000
11 000
15 000 000
11 000*
130
1 500
(fast reactors)
*Calculated value
43
Multijunction solar cells provide conversion
of the solar spectrum with higher efficiency.
Achievable efficiency of multijunction cells is > 50%
Ge
Si
Spectral irradiance
(W/m2 µm)
GaInP
1600
1600
1400
1400
1200
1200
1000
1000
800
800
600
600
400
400
200
200
0
GaAs
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Wavelength (nm)
2500
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
Wavelength (nm)
44
The experimental PV installation with output power of 1 kW based on
concentrator III-V solar cells and Fresnel lens panels arranged on the suntracker (development of the Ioffe Institute). The efficiency >30% can be
ensured by such a type of installations if they are equipped by tandem solar
cells with efficiency >35%.
45
White light-emitting diodes:
efficiency, controllability, reliability, life time
Today:
Outlook:
InGaN-QW/GaN/sapphire
light-emitting chip + YAG Ce phosphor
Monolithic microcavity LED with
InGN/GN MQW active region
White
White
Phosphor
YAG Ce
Sapphire
Sapphire
Buffer
Buffer
n+GaN
n+GaN
InGaN-QW
Ti/Ag/Au
InGaN-QW
p+GaN
p+GaN
Ni/Ag/Au
+ simple design
– phosphor loss
Ti/Ag/Au
Bragg resonator
GaN/AlGaN
Ni/Ag/Au
+ monolithic nature
+ absence of additional loss
46
Nanostructures for high power
semiconductor lasers
Solid-state lasers pumping
Atmospheric and
fibre optical
communication
Medical
apparatus
Thickness, nm
Fibre
lasers
5 nm
Navigation
Band gap, eV
Energy transport
in the atmosphere
and fibre
Atmospheric
lidars
Laser efficiency > 75%
Laser power > 10 W
Welding and cutting
Laser array
output power > 100 W
Matrix output power > 5 kW
47
Global nanotechnology market forecast:
More than 1 trillion USD annually in the nearest 8–10 years
Ecology
100 billion
Transport
70 billion
Nanomaterials
350 billion
Accelerants
100 billion
Pharmaceutics
180 billion
Nanoelectronics
350 billion
48
Summary
1. Heterostructures — a new kind of semiconductor materials:
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expensive, complicated chemically & technologically but most efficient
2. Modern optoelectronics is based on heterostructure applications
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DHS laser — key device of the modern optoelectronics
HS PD — the most efficient & high speed photo diode
OEIC — only solve problem of high information density of optical
communication system
3. Future high speed microelectronics will mostly use
heterostructures
4. High temperature, high speed power electronics —
a new broad field of heterostructure applications
5. Heterostructures in solar energy conversion:
the most expensive photocells and the cheapest solar electricity producer
6. In the 21st century heterostructures in electronics will reserve
only 1% for homojunctions
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