Scott K. Powers • Edward T. Howley
Theory and Application to Fitness and Performance
SEVENTH EDITION
Chapter
Physiology of Exercise
in the United States—Its
Past, Its Future
Presentation prepared by:
Brian B. Parr, Ph.D.
University of South Carolina Aiken
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Chapter 1
Objectives
1. Name the three Nobel Prize winners
whose research work involved muscle or
muscular exercise.
2. Describe the role of the Harvard Fatigue
Laboratory in the history of exercise
physiology in United States.
3. Describe factors influencing physical
fitness in the United States over the past
century.
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Chapter 1
Outline
 Physical
 European
Education to
Heritage
Exercise Science
 Harvard Fatigue
 Graduate Study
Laboratory
and Research in
 Physical Fitness the Physiology of
Exercise
 Professional
Societies and
Research
Journals
 Translation of
Exercise
Physiology to the
Consumer
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Chapter 1
European Heritage
European Heritage
• Three physiologists received the Nobel
Prize for work related to muscle or
muscular exercise
– A.V. Hill
• Heat production during muscle contraction and
recovery
– Otto Meyerhof
• Relationship of O2 consumption and lactic acid in
muscle
– August Krogh
• Function of the capillary circulation
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Chapter 1
European Heritage
European Heritage
• Other prominent scientists
– J.S. Haldane
• Role of CO2 in the control of breathing
• Developed respiratory gas analyzer
– C.G. Douglas
• Role of O2 and lactic acid in control of breathing
during exercise
• Douglas bags
– Christian Bohr
• O2 binding to hemoglobin
• Bohr shift in oxyhemoglobin-dissociation curve
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Chapter 1
European Heritage
In Summary
 Three physiologists, A.V. Hill, August
Krogh, and Otto Meyerhof, received the
Nobel Prize for work related to muscle
or muscular exercise.
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Chapter 1
Harvard Fatigue Laboratory
Harvard Fatigue Laboratory
• D.B. Dill
– Directed the lab from 1927–1947
• Conducted research in numerous areas
– Exercise, clinical, and environmental
physiology
• Made careful and precise measurements
– Using “new” instruments and techniques
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Chapter 1
Harvard Fatigue Laboratory
Harvard Fatigue Laboratory
• Other distinguished scientists
– Steven Horvath
– Sid Robinson
– E. Asmussen
– E.H. Christensen
– M. Nielsen
– August Krogh
– Rudolpho Margaria
– Peter F. Scholander
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Chapter 1
Harvard Fatigue Laboratory
Active Research Areas in the
Harvard Fatigue Laboratory
– Metabolism
• Maximal oxygen uptake
• Oxygen debt
• Carbohydrate and fat
metabolism during long-term
work
– Environmental physiology
• Altitude
• Dry and moist heat
• Cold
– Clinical physiology
• Gout
• Schizophrenia
• Diabetes
– Aging
• Basal metabolic rate
• Maximal oxygen uptake
• Maximal heart rate
– Blood
• Acid-base balance
• O2 saturation: role of PO2,
PCO2, and carbon
monoxide
• Nutrition
• Nutritional assessment
techniques
• Vitamins
• Foods
– Physical fitness
• Harvard Step Test
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Table 1.1
Chapter 1
Harvard Fatigue Laboratory
Comparison of Old and New
Technology
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Figure 1.1
Chapter 1
Harvard Fatigue Laboratory
In Summary
 The Harvard Fatigue laboratory was a
focal point in the development of
exercise physiology in the United
States. Dr. D.B. Dill directed the
laboratory from its opening in 1927
until its closing in 1947. The body of
research in exercise and environmental
physiology produced in that laboratory
forms the basis of much of what we
know today.
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Chapter 1
Physical Fitness
The Study of Physical Fitness
• A popular topic today
• Possible careers:
– Physical Education
– Physiology of Exercise
– Health Education
– Nutrition
– Physical Therapy
– Athletic Training
– Medicine
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Chapter 1
Physical Fitness
Civil War Until the First World
War
• Physical education primarily concerned
with fitness
• Many physical education leaders were
trained in medicine
• Dr. Dudley Sargent
– Hired by Harvard in 1879
– Set up physical training programs with
individual exercise prescriptions
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Chapter 1
Physical Fitness
World War I and World War II
• Large numbers of draftees failed the
induction exams due to mental and
physical defects
• Physical programs began to resemble premilitary training programs
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Chapter 1
Physical Fitness
In the 1950s
• Autopsies of young soldiers from Korean
War
– Showed significant coronary artery disease
had already developed
• Hans Kraus
– Showed the American children performed
poorly on a muscular fitness test compared to
Europeans
• AAHPERD Youth Fitness Test (1957)
– Used in physical education programs
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Chapter 1
Physical Fitness
Efforts of U.S. Presidents
• Eisenhower
– Established the “President’s Council on Youth
Fitness”
• Kennedy
– Changed to “President’s Council on Physical
Fitness”
• Nixon
– Changed it to the current name, “President’s
Council on Physical Fitness and Sports”
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Chapter 1
Physical Fitness
In the 1980s
• AAHPERD published the Health-Related
Physical Fitness Test Manual
– Performance testing
– Fitness testing
• Public Health Service
– Listed “physical fitness and exercise” as one
of the fifteen areas of concern related to
improving the country’s overall health
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Chapter 1
Physical Fitness
Additional Events
• Epidemiological studies
– Degenerative diseases relate to poor health
habits
– High-fat diet, smoking, inactivity
• An increased use of exercise tests to
diagnose heart disease
• Large corporations developed “executive”
fitness programs
– Evolved into today’s “Corporate Fitness”
programs
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Chapter 1
Physical Fitness
Corporate Fitness
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Figure 1.2
Chapter 1
Physical Fitness
Corporate Fitness
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Figure 1.3
Chapter 1
Physical Fitness
In Summary
 Fitness has been an issue in this
country from the latter part of the
nineteenth century until the present.
War or the threat of war exerted a
strong influence on fitness programs
in the public schools.
 Recent interest in fitness is related to
the growing concern over the high
death rates from disease processes
that are attributable to preventable
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Chapter 1
A Closer Look 1.1
Physical Activity
Recommendations
• American Heart Association (1992)
– Made physical inactivity a major risk factor for
cardiovascular diseases
• CDC-ACSM recommendation (1995)
– “Every U.S. adult should accumulate 30
minutes of moderate-intensity physical activity
on most, preferably all, days of the week”
• Surgeon General’s Report (1996)
– 60% adults do not meet recommendations
– 25% not active at all
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Chapter 1
A Closer Look 1.1
Physical Activity and Health
• Physical activity has been shown to:
– Lower the risk of dying prematurely and from
heart disease
– Reduce the risk of developing diabetes and
high blood pressure
– Help maintain healthy bones, muscles, and
joints
– Help lower blood pressure in those with high
blood pressure
– Promote psychological well-being
– Help achieve and maintain a healthy body
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Chapter 1
Physical Education to Exercise Science
Physical Education to Exercise
Science
• Reduced need for school-based physical
education teachers
• Increased need for professionals in
preventive and clinical settings
• Programs include courses in:
– Biomechanics
– Physiology of exercise
– Fitness assessment
– Exercise prescription
– Exercise leadership
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Chapter 1
Graduate Study and Research in the Physiology of Exercise
Undergraduate and Graduate
Study
• Growth in the number of exercise
physiology laboratories
– Opportunities for graduate and undergraduate
education
• Graduates from these laboratories
contributed to the field
– Started new programs
– Research productivity
• Integrated approach to study
– Importance of molecular biology
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Chapter 1
Graduate Study and Research in the Physiology of Exercise
Recent Areas of Investigation in
Exercise Physiology
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Chapter 1
Graduate Study and Research in the Physiology of Exercise
In Summary
 The increase in research in exercise
physiology was a catalyst that
propelled the transformation on
physical education departments into
exercise science departments. The
number of exercise physiology
laboratories increased dramatically
between the 1950s and the 1970s, with
many dealing with problems requiring
specialized training in human
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Chapter 1
Professional Societies and Research Journals
Professional Societies
• American Physiological Society (APS)
• American Association of Health, Physical
Education, and Recreation (AAHPER)
• American College of Sports Medicine
(ACSM)
– United physicians, physical educators, and
physiologists
• American Association of Cardiovascular
and Pulmonary Rehabilitation (AACVPR)
• National Strength and Conditioning
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Chapter 1
Professional Societies and Research Journals
Research Journals
• Growth in research has led to increase
in number of journals
• Allow scientists to present their work
• Many are published by professional
societies
• Has led to a need for research
specialization
– To compete for grants and publications
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Chapter 1
Professional Societies and Research Journals
In Summary
 The growth and development of
exercise physiology laboratories in the
1950s and 1960s increased the
opportunities for graduate study and
research.
 Graduates from these laboratories
contributed to the increase in the
research productivity and the number
of research journals and professional
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Chapter 1
Translation of Exercise Physiology to the Consumer
Translation of Exercise
Physiology to the Consumer
• Demand for correct information and
qualifications of fitness professionals
• Colleges and universities
– Developed areas of study in exercise
physiology and fitness
• Professional organizations
– Developed certification programs to establish
a standard of knowledge and skill for
practitioners
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Chapter 1
•
Translation of Exercise Physiology to the Consumer
A Closer
Look 1.2
Careers for Undergraduate
Exercise
Science
Majors
Numerous career opportunities
– Personal training, strength and conditioning,
cardiac rehabilitation, athletic training,
massage therapy, allied health professions,
and medicine
• Requirements:
– Coursework
– Practicum or internship
– Certification exam
– Graduate study for some careers
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Chapter 1
Translation of Exercise Physiology to the Consumer
In Summary
 To meet the needs of the consumer for
correct information and programs
about physical activity and health,
university and college exercise science
departments have developed new areas
of study in exercise physiology and
fitness.
 Organizations like the American
College of Sports Medicine and the
National Strength and Conditioning
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Chapter 1
Study Questions
1. Identify two of the most prolific scientists in
your professional area of interest in exercise
physiology and briefly describe what they have
done. Use a research database at the library to
find your references.
2. Pick a topic of interest in exercise physiology
and describe how a molecular biologist might
approach it compared to a scientist interested
in doing studies with humans.
3. Societal factors can have a major impact on
career goals. Briefly describe the factors
currently influencing one of the following
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Chapter 1
Study Questions
4. Identify the primary professional organization
with which you would like to associate. Find out
if the organization has a membership category
for students, and what you would receive if you
chose to join.
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