CHAPTER 5
STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS
I. STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS

Consciousness- all the sensations and perceptions
of external events and your self awareness of mental
events including thoughts, memories, and feelings
about your experiences and yourself
A. ALTERED STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS
1. waking consciousness – a state of clear,
organized alertness
 states of consciousness related to fatigue, delirium,
hypnosis, drugs, and euphoria – not “normal”
awareness

2. altered state of consciousness- changes occur in the
equality and pattern of mental activity
 3. some causes:
 a. sensory overload
 b. monotonous stimulation
 c. restricted sensory input
 d. unusual physical conditions

II. SLEEP
A. The Need for Sleep
 1. Sleep is an innate biological rhythm that can
never be entirely ignored
 symptoms of sleep deprivation are reversed by a
single night’s rest

2. causes trembling hands, drooping eyelids, inattention,
irritability, staring, increased pain sensitivity, and general
discomfort.
 3. Hypersomnia (excessive daytime sleepiness) occurs
after a few hours of sleep loss
 4. lose just 1 hour of sleep a night, it can affect your
mood, memory, ability to pay attention

5. a microsleep is a brief shift in brain activity
 Biologically sleep is a necessity
 6. temporary sleep-deprivation psychosis (loss of contact
with reality): confusion, disorientation, delusions, and
hallucinations.

B. SLEEP PATTERNS
Rhythms of sleep and waking are steady
 Short sleepers- 5 hours of sleep or less per night.
 long sleepers - 9 hours or more

III. STAGES OF SLEEP
a balance between sleep and waking systems; one
system has brain circuits and chemicals that
promote sleep; another network of brain cells
responds to chemicals that inhibit sleep.
 -the two systems see-saw back and forth, switching
the brain between sleep and wakefulness.

A. SLEEP STAGES
1. Stage 1 – light sleep
 -heart rate slows more; breathing becomes more
irregular; muscles of body relax.
 -this may trigger a reflex muscle contraction called
hypnic jerk

2. STAGE 2
-as sleep deepens, body temperature drops further.
 -sleep spindles –short bursts of brainwave activity
appear and mark the true boundary of sleep

3. STAGE 3
-new waves called delta appear – large and slow;
signal a move to deeper sleep and a further loss of
consciousness.
 4. Stage 4 – deep sleep
 - takes about one hour; sleeper is in a state of
oblivion

B. TWO DUAL PROCESS HYPOTHESIS OF SLEEP
-fluctuations n her sleep hormones cause recurring
cycles of deeper and lighter sleep throughout the
night
 -REM – rapid eye movements are associated with
dreaming
 - NREM – non-REM sleep – occurs during stages
1,2,3, and 4; dream free 90 percent of the time.

1. FUNCTIONS OF NREM SLEEP
a. dream free about 90 percent of the time and is
deepest early in the night during the first few stage
4 periods
 b. dreamless slow-wave NREM sleep increases after
physical exertion and may help us recover from
bodily fatigue


c. according to the dual process hypothesis, we are
bombarded by information throughout the day, which
causes our neural networks to become more and more
active. As a result, your brain requires more and more
energy to continue functioning
2. FUNCTION OF REM SLEEP
a. REM seems to help us sort and integrate
memories, especially memories concerning
strategies that help us solve problems.
 b. Early in life, REM sleep may stimulate the
developing brain.

3. REM SLEEP AND DREAMING
a. During the day, when info is streaming in, the
brain may be too busy to efficiently select useful
memories.
 b. time of high emotion; heart beats irregularly,
blood pressure and breathing waver.
 c. valuable for keeping the brain in good working
order.

IV. SLEEP DISTURBANCES – A SERIOUS RISK TO
HEALTH AND HAPPINESS

A. Insomnia – 30 percent of adults –difficulty in
going to sleep, frequent nighttime awakenings,
waking too early, or a combination of these.
1. TYPES AND CAUSES OF INSOMNIA

-worry, stress, and excitement can cause temporary
insomnia: increased mental activity and heightened
arousal; then frustration and anger over not being
able to sleep cause more worry and arousal, which
further delays sleep, which causes more frustration
2. Chronic Insomnia exists if a sleeping problem lasts for
more than 3 weeks
 3. Drug-dependency insomnia – sleep loss caused by
withdrawal from sleeping pills

4. BEHAVIORAL REMEDIES
a. stimulus control
 b. sleep restriction-don’t sleep late or got to bed
early
 c. paradoxical intention – remove the pressures of
trying to go to sleep; try to keep the eyes open and
stay awake
 d. relaxation
 e. exercise

f. food intake - starchy foods increases the amount of
tryptophan that reaches the brain, which increases brain
serotonin ( associated with relaxation, positive mood, and
sleepiness)
 g. stimulant avoidance-consume less caffeine, alcohol,
and tobacco

B. SLEEPWALKING AND SLEEPTALKING
1. Somnambulists
 eyes are open; blank face; shuffling feet
 -occurs during NREM sleep – stages 3 and 4.

2. SLEEPTALKING – OCCURS IN NREM STAGES OF
SLEEP
C. Nightmares and Night Terrors
 1. Nightmare – bad dream in REM sleep; occur
twice a month, are usually brief and easily
remembered
 2. Night terrors – total panic and may hallucinate
frightening dream images; awakens drenched in
sweat but only vaguely remembers the terror
 -occurs in NREM sleep

D. SLEEP APNEA
-a person who snores loudly, with short silences
and loud gasps or snorts, may suffer from apnea;
interrupted breathing.
 1. breathing stops for periods of 20 seconds to 2
minutes. As the need for oxygen becomes intense,
the person wakes a little and gulps in air. She or he
then settles back to sleep.

2. Some cases occur because the brain stops sending the
signals that maintain breathing.
 3. SIDS - for of sleep apnea – “crib death”

E. Narcolepsy- sudden, irrestible sleep attacks; last from
1 to 30 min.; fall asleep while standing, talking, or driving
 -emotional excitement triggers it, especially laughter
 1. cataplexy – temporary paralysis of muscles, leading to
complete body collapse.

V. DREAMS
-Most people dream 4-5 times a night
 usually spaced 90 minutes apart.
 dreams occur in real time, not as a flash.


A. REM Rebound – when sleep deprived and finally
allowed to sleep undisturbed, they dream extra amounts
B. DREAM THEORIES
1. Psychodynamic Dream Theory
 a. first advanced the idea that dreams are based on
wish fulfillment
 b. emphasizes internal conflicts and unconscious
forces
 c. there is evidence against them

d. dreams are expressed as images or pictures rather than
in words
 e. dreams express conscious desires and conflicts as
disguised dream symbols.
 f. Freud realized that some dreams are trivial “day
residues” or carryovers from ordinary waking events.

2. THE ACTIVATION-SYNTHESIS HYPOTHESIS.


a. during REM sleep, brain cells are activated that
normally control eye movements, balance, and actions.
However, messages from the cells are blocked from
reaching the body, so no movement occurs.
b. The cells continue to tell higher brain areas of their
activities; struggling to interpret this info, the brain
searches through stored memories and manufactures a
dream.
c. Several parts of the brain are activated during REM
sleep. This triggers sensations, motor commands, and
memories.
 d. The cortex of the brain is active and synthesizes this
activity into stories and visual images.

e. The frontal areas, which control higher mental
abilities, are mostly shut down during REM sleep; this
explains why dreams are more primitive and more
bizarre than daytime thoughts; a different type of
thinking occurs during sleep.
 f. Because dreams are created from memories and past
experiences, they can tell us quite a lot about each
person’s mental life, emotions, and concerns.

3. NEUROCOGNITIVE DREAM THEORY
1. most dreams reflect everyday events; action
takes place between the dreamer and 2-3 other
emotionally important people.
 -the brain areas that are active when we are awake
remain active during dreaming
 -conscious expression of REM sleep processes that
are sorting and storing daily experiences

C. DREAM WORLDS

1. dream actions are mostly familiar: running,
jumping, ridding, sitting, talking, watching.
VI. Hypnosis – an altered state of consciousness,
characterized by narrowed attention and an increased
openness to suggestion
 -basic suggestion effect - tendency of hypnotized persons
to carry out suggested actions as if they were voluntary

VII. MEDITATION AND SENSORY DEPRIVATION



A. meditation is a mental exercise used to alter
consciousness; focuses attention and interrupts the
typical flow of thoughts, worries, and analysis
B. Sensory Deprivation – any major reduction in the
amount or variety of sensory stimulation
-REST – Restricted Environment Stimulation Therapy
shows promise to stimulate creative thinking; enhance
performance in skilled sports; relieve chronic pain and
reduce stress
VIII. DRUG-ALTERED CONSCIOUSNESS
1. psychoactive drug – substance capable of altering
attention, judgment, memory, time sense, selfcontrol, emotion, or perception.
 2. stimulant – increases activity in the body and
nervous system.
 3. depressant – does the reverse


-all addictive drugs stimulate the brains reward circuitry,
producing feelings of pleasure; fool brain-reward
pathways : “that felt good. Let’s do it again. Let’s
remember exactly how we did it.” – creates a compulsion
to repeat the experience. negative consequences follow
much later
A. DRUG DEPENDENCE
-psychoactive drugs create dependencies
 1. physical dependence - when a person
compulsively uses a drug to maintain bodily
comfort
 -withdrawal from drugs such as alcohol,
barbiturates, and opiates can cause violent flu-like
symptoms of nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, chills,
sweating, and cramps.

-addiction is accompanied by drug tolerance – reduced
response to a drug – leads to larger and larger does to get
the desired effect.
 2. psychological dependence – drug is necessary to
maintain feeling of comfort or well-being; just as
powerful as physical addiction
 -addiction is any compulsive habit pattern

B. PATTERNS OF ABUSE
1. Experimental – short term based on curiosity
 2. social-recreational
 3. situational – use to cope with a specific problem
 4. intensive – daily use with elements of
dependence
 5. compulsive – intense use and extreme
dependence

-Polydrug Abuse – abusing more than one drug at the
same time; accounts for the vast majority of deaths due to
overdose.
 -when mixed, the effects of different drugs are multipled
by drug interaction – one drug enhances the effect of
another

IX. UPPERS
A. Amphetamines – synthetic stimulants
 -were once widely prescribed for weight loss or
depression; today: narcolepsy, childhood
hyperactivity, and overdoses of depressant drugs.

1. Methamphetamine – variation of amphetamine – can
be made cheaply in backyard labs
 -can be snorted, injected or eaten
 -rapidly process a drug tolerance; most abusers take even
larger doses to get the desired effect

2. Abuse – large doses can cause nausea, vomiting,
extremely high blood pressure, fatal heart attacks;
and disabling strokes
 -speed up the use of bodily resources; do not supply
energy


-causes loss of contact with reality known as
amphetamine psychosis; have paranoid delusions that
someone is out to get them
B. Cocaine – central nervous system stimulant extracted
from the leaves of the coca plant
 -produces feelings of alertness, euphoria, well-being,
power, boundless energy, and pleasure
 -lasts 15-30 minutes; metabolized quickly

1. Abuse – even casual or 1st time users risk convulsions,
heart attack, or stroke
 -increases the chemical messengers dopamine –
produces a rush of pleasure and noradrenalin – arouses
the body
 First there is a jarring “crash of mood and energy, then
within a few days: fatigue, anxiety, paranoia, boredom,
and anhedonia – an inability to feel pleasure.

C. MDMA (ECSTASY) SIMILAR TO AMPHETAMINE



-produces a rush of energy; feel closer to others;
heightens sensory experience
-causes brain cells to release extra amounts of
serotonin
-dilated pupils, elevated blood pressure, jaw
clenching, loss of appetite, and elevated body temp.
1. ABUSE
-hyperthermia (elevated body temp) or heart
arrhythmias, lead to collapse; causes liver damage;
damages serotonergic brain cells
 -causes overstimulation of the brain, which can
result in a rebound depression

D. Caffeine – most frequently used psychoactive drug
 stimulated the brain by blocking chemicals that normally
inhibit or slow nerve activity.
 -causes sweating, talkativeness, tinnitus, hand tremors
 -found in tea, soft drinks, chocolate, cocoa, stay-awake
pills, cold remedies, aspirin

1. ABUSE

-caffeinism: insomnia, irritability, loss of appetite,
chills, racing heart, elevated body temp. (15-20
cups/day)
E. Nicotine – the most widely used psychoactive drug
 -natural stimulant; psychoactive drug; sometimes used to
kill insects.
 1. Abuse – the average age of first use is 15, and takes
about a year before dependence sets in
 -withdrawal from nicotine causes headaches, sweating,
cramps, insomnia, digestive upset, irritability, and sharp
cravings.

2. Impact on Health – releases potent carcinogens
(cancer-causing substances)
 secondary smoke cause 3,000 lung cancer deaths and
62,000 heart disease deaths each year in the US.
 3. Dynamics of Smoking – helps concentrate, feel
sociable, or calm down

X. DOWNERS – SEDATIVES, TRANQUILIZERS, AND
ALCOHOL
A. Barbiturates – sedative drug that depresses brain
activity that controls heartbeat and breathing;
medically used to calm patients or to induce sleep
 B. GHB –a mixture of degreasing solvent and drain
cleaner
 -central nervous system depressant that relaxes and
sedates the body similar to alcohol

1. Abuse –can relieve anxiety and produce relaxation
 as dosage increases, its sedative effects may result in
nausea, loss of muscle control, and either a sleep or a loss
of consciousness. Higher doses can cause coma,
breathing failure, and death.

C. Tranquilizers – lowers anxiety and reduces tension;
prescribed to alleviate nervousness and stress; can cause
drowsiness, shakiness, and confusion even at normal
doses
 1. Rohypnol -lowers inhibitions and produces relaxation
or intoxication; large doses induce short-term amnesia
and sleep.

2. Abuse – repeated use can cause physical dependence;
addiction
 suffer severe emotional depression that may end in
suicide.

D. Alcohol – the intoxicating element in fermented and
distilled liquors.
 1. small amounts reduce inhibitions and produce feelings
of relaxation and euphoria.
 2. large amounts causes impairment of the brain until the
drinker loses consciousness

3. Rather than enhancing sexual arousal, it usually
impairs performance, especially in males.
 4. Alcohol myopia – thinking and perception become
dulled or shortsighted.
 5. Abuse –the world’ favorite depressant; breeds our
biggest drug problem.

a. Binge drinking (having 5+ drinks in a short period of
time) and is a serious sign of alcohol abuse
 6. Risk – children of alcoholics are at a greater risk to
become abusers
 a. It is absorbed faster and metabolized more slowly by
women’s bodies; they are more prone to liver disease,
osteoporosis, depression

b. positively reinforced – drinking for pleasure –
motivates most people who consume alcohol; drink to
cope with negative emotions; alcohol abuse increases
with the level of stress in people’s lives.
 7. Moderated Drinking – drinking makes you feel good
while blood alcohol is rising and remains below a level of
about 0.05.

X. Hallucinogens
 A. LSD and PCP
 – LSD is the best known – produces hallucinations and
psychotic-like disturbances in thinking and perception.
 -PCP – an anesthetic, has stimulant and depressant
effects; can cause extreme agitation, disorientation, and
violence
 -these typically affect neurotransmitter systems that carry
messages between brain cells.

B. Marijuana – causes sense of euphoria or well-being,
relaxation, altered time sense, and perceptual distortions.
At high doses can cause paranoia, hallucinations, and
delusions.
 derived from the hemp plant Cannabis sativa; contains
THC – a mild hallucinogen that alters sensory
impressions.

1. THC accumulates in the body’s fatty tissues, especially
in the brain and reproductive organs
 2. it binds itself to the cerebral cortex which is the seat of
human consciousness.
 C. Dangers of Use
 -dependence is a risk
 -causes brain damage, genetic damage, and loss of
motivation

D. HEALTH RISKS



1. Causes pre-cancerous changes in lung cells – contains
50% more caner-causing hydrocarbons and 16X more
tar than tobacco smoke does.
2. temporarily lowers sperm production and produces
more abnormal sperm
3. causes abnormal menstrual cycles and disrupts
ovulation; causes a higher rate of miscarriages and can
reach a developing fetus.
4. suppresses the body’s immune system, increasing the
risk of disease.
 5. lowers activity level in the cerebellum – loss of
coordination.
 6. damages memory parts of the brain
 7. children of mothers who smoked marijuana during
pregnancy showed lowered ability to succeed in
challenging, goal-oriented activities.
