WILLIAM STALLINGS
COMPUTER ORGANIZATION
AND ARCHITECTURE
7TH EDITION
Group 5
• Chris Bello
• Arnold Colina
• Edemio Navas
• Rieni Gonzalez
Chapter 12
CPU Structure and Function
CPU Structure

CPU must:
 Fetch
instructions
 Interpret instructions
 Fetch data
 Process data
 Write data
CPU With Systems Bus
CPU Internal Structure
The Memory Hierarchy
• User-Visible Registers
• Control and Status Registers
User-Visible Registers - Availability
• General Purpose Registers – can be assigned to a variety of functions by
the programmer
•Data Registers – holds data
• Address Registers – may be considered as somewhat general purpose
o Segment Pointers – segmented addressing machine
o Index Registers – indexed addressing
– auto-indexed
o Stack Pointers - user-visible stack addressing
• Condition Codes (flags) – results from operations
Design Issues
• General Purpose Registers or Specialized Registers? – Flexibility vs. Saving bits
• How many registers? – Fewer registers result in more memory references
• How big are these registers? – At least long enough to hold the largest address
Control Registers – Control the operation
• Program Counter (PC) –Has the address of an instruction to be fetched
• Instruction Register (IR) – Has the instruction recently fetched
• Memory Address Register (MAR) – Has the address location in memory
• Memory Buffer Register (MBR) – Contains a word of data to be written to
memory or the word most recently read
o Data are exchanged with memory using the MAR and MBR
o MAR connects directly to the address bus
Status Registers – What’s your status?
• Sign – contains the sign bit of the result of the last arithmetic operation
• Zero – Set when the result is 0
• Carry – Set if an operation resulted in a carry or borrow
• Equal – Set if a logical compare result is equality.
• Overflow – Used to indicate arithmetic overflow
• Interrupt enable/disable – Indicates if Interrupt is enabled or disabled
• Supervisor – Indicates if the processor is in supervisor or user mode.
o Some privileged instructions can be executed only in supervisor mode
Practical Application Examples?
• Motorola MC6800 [STR179]
– Eight data registers
– Nine address registers
– 32 bit Program Counter
– 16 bit Status Register
Practical Application Examples?
• Intel 8086 [MORS78]
– Four 16-bit data registers that are addressed
on a 16-bit basis
– Four 16-bit pointer and index registers
– Four 16-bit segment registers
– Instruction Pointer and 1-bit status and
control flags
An instruction cycle includes the following sub cycles :
•Fetch : Read the next instruction from memory into the processor.
•Execute : Interpret the opcode and perform the indicated operation .
•Interrupt : If interrupts are enabled and an interrupt has occurred ,
save the current process state and service the interrupt .
•Indirect: after an interruption is fetched , it is examined to determine if
any indirect addressing in involved .If so ,the required operand are fetched
using indirect addressing .
Data flow , fetch cycle
The exact sequence during an instruction cycle depends on the design
of the processor but in general
Terms we can indicate what must happen .
1-During the fetch cycle an instruction is read from memory .
2-The PC contains the address of the next instruction to be fetched .
3-This address is move to the MAR and placed on the address bus .
4-Control Unit request a memory read and result is placed on the data
bus and copied into MBR and moved to the IR.
5-Meanwhile the PC is incrementing by 1 , preparatory for the next
fetch .
6-Once the fetch is over , the control unit examines the contents of the IR
to determine if it contains an operand specifier using indirect
addressing .If so ,an indirect cycle is performed .
DATA FLOW , FETCH CYCLE
CPU
PC
MAR
MEMORY
CONTROL
UNIT
MBR: memory buffer register
MAR: memory add register
IR: instruction register
IR
MBR
PC: program counter
ADD DATA CONTROL
BUS BUS BUS
Pipelining

Fetch instruction
Decode instruction
Calculate operands (i.e. EAs)
Fetch operands
Execute instructions
Write result

Overlap these operations
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Two Stage Instruction Pipeline
Timing Diagram for Instruction Pipeline Operation
The Effect of a Conditional Branch on Instruction
Pipeline Operation
Six Stage
Instruction Pipeline
Alternative Pipeline Depiction
Dealing with Branches

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
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Multiple Streams
Prefetch Branch Target
Loop buffer
Branch prediction
Delayed branching
Multiple Streams


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Have two pipelines
Prefetch each branch into a separate pipeline
Use appropriate pipeline
Leads to bus & register contention
Multiple branches lead to further pipelines being
needed
Prefetch Branch Target



Target of branch is prefetched in addition to
instructions following branch
Keep target until branch is executed
Used by IBM 360/91
Loop Buffer



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
Very fast memory
Maintained by fetch stage of pipeline
Check buffer before fetching from memory
Very good for small loops or jumps
c.f. cache
Used by CRAY-1
Loop Buffer Diagram
Branch Prediction (1)

Predict never taken
 Assume
that jump will not happen
 Always fetch next instruction
 68020 & VAX 11/780
 VAX will not prefetch after branch if a page fault
would result (O/S v CPU design)

Predict always taken
 Assume
that jump will happen
 Always fetch target instruction
Branch Prediction (2)

Predict by Opcode
 Some
instructions are more likely to result in a jump
than thers
 Can get up to 75% success

Taken/Not taken switch
 Based
on previous history
 Good for loops
Branch Prediction (3)

Delayed Branch
 Do
not take jump until you have to
 Rearrange instructions
Branch Prediction Flowchart
Branch Prediction State Diagram
Dealing With
Branches
Questions:
•
•
•
•
•
•
What are the general parts of the CPU?
What general roles are performed by processor
registers?
What categories of data are commonly supported by
user-visible registers?
What is the function of condition codes?
What is a program status word?
Why is a two-stage instruction pipeline unlikely to cut
the instruction cycle time in half, compared with the use
of no pipeline?
Questions:
•
•
List and briefly explain various ways in which an
instruction pipeline can deal with branch instructions
How are history bits used for branch prediction
Answers
•
•
•
•
•
•
ALU, Registers, Control Unit, Internal Bus
Data, Addresses, or Instructions
To provide information about the data in question
To inform the status of an operation
Contains condition codes plus other status
information
The execution cycle may take longer than the fetch
cycle, since it involves reading and storing
operands.
Answers Cont…
•
•
Predict always/never taken, by opcode, taken/not
taken switch, branch history table
History bits contain the information on the previous
branches taken which then are used to determine
the branch to take.