Plant names: a cognitive
approach
Ioan MILICĂ
The “Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University of Iasi
Romania
Research project: POSDRU/89/1.5/S/49944
Contents
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I. What’s in a name?
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II. Features of the expert model
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III. Features of the naïve model
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IV. Sources of naming
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V. Further research
What’s in a name?
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Helianthus annuus, 1753,
Carolus Linnaeus (17071778)
Engl. sunflower, Germ. die
Sonnenblume, Rom.
floarea-soarelui
Fr. tournesol, Sp. girasol,
mirasol , It. girasole, Port.
girassol
What’s in a name?
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most common names of the plant in the Western Romance languages
reflect that the flower - the most prominent part of the plant inspired the name;
they point out that the flower turns towards the sun; the scientific
name of this property is heliotropism;
the common names outline two frames: 1. [turn] + [sun] – a
“narrative” frame which consists of verb/ descriptor of verbal
origin + noun; 2. [sun] + [flower] or [flower] + [sun] – a “descriptive”
frame which consists of noun + noun;
additional linguistic data reflects that the two semantic frames can
also be traced in the languages of various indigenous Mexican
groups (cf. Lentz et al. 2008: 6235):
1. Seri, Otome and Zoque groups: ‘watches the sun/ looks at the sun
(god)‘ ; a similar frame is evidenced by the Spanish mirasol < Sp.
mirar ('to look at something‘ ) + Sp. sol ('sun‘) and
2. Tepehuan and Popoluca groups: ‘(big) sun‘; Nahua group: ‘shield
flower‘; Raramuri group: ' ‘seed flower‘;
the “descriptive” frame is also evidenced by the scientific name of
plant; one can infer that this is the dominant denominative model.
What’s in a name?
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The current scientific
botanical taxonomy usually
includes seven taxonomic
ranks (levels): 1. kingdom
(regnum), 2. division or
phylum (divisio, phylum), 3.
class (classis), 4. order
(ordo), 5. family (familia), 6.
genus (genus), and 7. species
(species).
The secondary ranks of taxa
are tribe (tribus) between
family and genus, section
(sectio) and series (series)
between genus and species,
and variety (varietas) and
form (forma) below species.
(cf. International Code of
Botanical Nomenclature,
Vienna, 2005)
Regnum
(Kingdom)
Phylum
(Division)
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species
What’s in a name?
SUPERREGNUM: Eukaryota
Gr. eu- (‘proper') + Gr. karyon
('nut')
REGNUM: Plantae
DIVISIO: Magnoliophyta
Magnolio < Pierre Magnol (16381715), a French botanist who
introduced the concept of
family in the scientific
classification of plants.
Gr. phyta (‘plants')
CLASSIS: Magnoliopsida
Gr. – (o)psida – suffix for plants
ORDO: Asterales
Ger. aster (‘star')
FAMILIA: Asteraceae
SUBFAMILIA: Asteroideae
TRIBUS: Heliantheae
Gr. helios (‘sun') + gr. anthos
(‘flower')
(Subtribus: Unassigned)
GENUS: Helianthus
SPECIES: Helianthus annuus
Lat. annuus (‘annual‘)
Plantae
Magnoliophyta
Magnoliopsida
Asterales
Asteraceae
Helianthus
Helianthus
annuus
What’s in a name ?
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According to Berlin (1973) et al.,
folk
biological
taxonomies
usually
consists
of
five
taxonomic categories: 1. unique
beginner; 2. life form; 3.
generic; 4. specific; 5. varietal;
The “generic level” generally
corresponds to the “genus” rank
of the scientific taxonomy.
Generic taxa “are the basic
building blocks of all folk
taxonomies. They represent the
most commonly referred to
groupings of organisms in the
natural environment, are the
most salient psychologically and
are likely to be among the first
taxa learned by the child”
(Berlin et al., 1973: 216)
unique
Beginner
plant
life form
tree, grass, etc.
generic
oak, violet etc.
specific
various types of violets
varietal
various breeds of dogs
Features of the expert model
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SYSTEMATICITY - naming is done according to a
naming scheme
(binary nomenclature) and to a
classifying scheme (taxonomy). The scientific names
reflect the relationships between plants.
ARBITRARINESS - scientific plant names represent
“stipulative definitions”, i.e. deliberate and arbitrary
choices of the denominations given to certain
realities.
NOMENCLATURAL SPECIFICITY - each domain of
scientific research has specific denominative needs
Scientific botanical names are binary structures:
Leontopodium alpinum → Lat. Leontopodium < Gr.
leontopodion 'lion’s foot' + Lat. alpinus, -a, -um 'which
grows in the Alps or the in alpine area of some
mountains‘ → 'alpine lion’s foot‘ → linguistic calque:
Fr. pied-de-lion, patte-de-lion
Features of the expert model
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DENOMINATIVE PRECISION - the scientific name
will suggest, as clearly as possible, the properties of
the concept or of the thing it stands for. In
scientific botanical taxonomy certain affixes are
assigned certain denominative ranks.
TERMINOLOGICAL STABILITY - once formed, a
scientific term cannot be changed either in form or in
content.
ECONOMY – scientific names should not be
excessively long.
EUPHONY – scientific names should not sound
unpleasant.
TRANSPARENCY – scientific names can be
“deciphered”.
Features of the naïve model
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EMPIRICISM – folk plant names are assigned on the
basis of direct observation.
TRADITIONALISM – ethnobotanical names are not
deliberately and consciously chosen. They exist in a
certain linguistic community due to the compelling
force of tradition. A common name is enforced by
collectivity, not by individuals.
DENOMINATIVE VARIABILITY – In the same
language, the same plant has names that differ from
one region to another, from one period to another,
from one group to another.
DENOMINATIVE IMPRECISION - one and the same
name is used to make reference to different plants or
that the same plant bears more than one folk name.
Features of the naïve model
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DENOMINATIVE SPECIALISATION – certain linguistic
units, like lexical affixes, act as markers to enforce
differences: Rom. albăstrică (Aster tripolium) – Rom.
albăstrioară (Consolida regalis) – Rom. albăstriţă (Centaurea
cyanus).
VAGUE DENOMINATION - points out the relatively limited
knowledge offered by the senses in the process of making
essential differences among botanical realities in all given
situations. Primary lexemes (Berlin, 1973: 126) like tree,
grass, weed, flower are used to make up secondary lexemes.
 the model [qualifier + primary lexeme] is very productive:
black grass, white grass, sweet grass, spike grass etc.
CULTURAL SPECIFICITY - plant names reflect practices,
beliefs and human behaviors specific to a certain culture. Ex:
pasqueflower, devil’s grass, St. John’s wort etc.
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OPAQUENESS – folk (common) plant names cannot be so
easily “deciphered”.
Sources of naming – the naïve model
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body parts > anthropomorphism or zoomorphism
(gestalts): hand-leaved violet (Viola palmata); quickin-the-hand (Impatiens capensis)
perception: taste: bitternut (Carya cordiformis);
colour:
animals: wolf’s-milk (Euphorbia helioscopia);
birds: three birds (Triphora trianthophora)
insects: butterfly-flower/weed (Asclepias tuberosa)
plants: poison-oak (Toxicodendron/Rhus quercifolium)
clothing: monk’s hood (Aconitum napellus)
jewelry: lady's ear drops (Fuchsia magellanica)
objects: devil’s spoons (Alisma plantago-aquatica)
Sources of naming – the naïve model
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the sacred: St. George’s herb (Valeriana officinalis)
fabulous beings: mandrake (Mandragora autumnalis) –
folk etymology
money: moneywort (Lysimachia nummularia)
human relationships: five sisters (Lysimachia
quadrifolia)
imagology: Indian chief/shooting star (Dodecatheon
meadia)
time: holidays: pasqueflower (Anemone pulsatilla),
seasons: summer snowflake (Leucojum aestivum),
months: mayflower (for several plants)
space: places: star of Bethleem (Ornithogalum
umbellatum); habitats: swamp cottonwood (Populus
heterophylla)
cosmos: sunflower (Helianthus annuus)
Sources of naming – the expert model
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In addition to all the sources of the naïve model, the
scientific model has several specific domains:
ancient mythology: Asclepias tuberosa
name of the legendary discoverer: Gentiana
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name of the scientist who discovered the plant(s):
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folk names from various indigenous languages: Goupia
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asclepiadea
Plumeria jamaicensis
guatemalensis
Further research
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To use conceptual integration theory (the blending
theory – Fauconnier and Turner) in order to develop
applications in the field of lexicography (analysis and
description of the compound lexical units)
A distinction could be drawn between single layered
compounds (lexical builders from one language),
double layered compounds (lexical builders from two
languages) and multiple layered compounds (lexical
builders from three or more languages).
Most frequent compounds seem to be single layered
and double layered compounds
A prospective model
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Helianthus annuus
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Mental space helios/sun:
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Space builders: colour,
shape
Mental space anthos/flower
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helios
(sun)
Space builders: flower
structure, shape
Mental space annuus/annual
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Space builders: time,
non-perennial plant
HELIANTHUS
ANNUUS
anthos
(flower)
annuus
(annual)
References (selective)
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