The Importance of Conservation:
History and Current Coastal
Management Approaches in the
Philippines
Module 1, Unit 3, Session 3
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Objectives
• Examine the evolution of the marine and
fishery programs in the Philippines, including
the progression from community-based
Coastal Resource Management (CRM) to
Integrated Coastal Management (ICM).
• Analyze current stage of MPA management
and situate respective MPA’s within the
bigger picture of ICM.
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Discussion outline
1. Evolution and timeline of coastal resource use
2. ICM adaptive management
– CRM planning process
– ICM planning process
3. ICM sustainability as next step
– Coastal resource management interventions
– Collaborative/co-management partnerships
4. MPA planning process
– General framework for MPA establishment and
management
– Conceptual framework for community-based MPAs
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Natural resource management,
whether coastal or otherwise,
is essentially the
management of human
activities.
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Evolution of Philippine coastal
management
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Open Access
• Up until1960s
• Resources considered unlimited in supply, not requiring
management.
• Demand does not surpass supply.
http://www.cruising-png.com/21ATOLL.HTM
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Open Access
• 1960s – 1970s
• Robust expansion and
development in fisheries
and aquaculture.
• Coastal resource
development promoted
by national government
• In 1950s, demand
surpassed supply.
http://www.cbc.ca/world/story/2010/06/03/pakistan-cyclone-phet.html
• Advent of the tragedy
of the commons
(Garrett Hardin)
http://www.vietnamalbum.com/index.render/photo/photo/
id/3376/Many-fishing-boats-a....html/
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http://vaughts.blogspot.com/2008/08/tragedy-of-commons.html
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Tragedy of the Commons
• The Tragedy of the Commons theory is as old
as Aristotle, who said:
“That which is common to the
greatest number has the least care
bestowed upon it.”
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Regulated Access
• 1970s – 1980s
• National thrust was largely to promote
increased efficiency in fishing effort rather
than to introduce/enhance management
measures.
• Led to excessive fishing pressure, overfishing,
stock depletion, and destruction of freshwater
and marine habitats.
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Need for Regulation
• Three other major obstacles also contributed
to the mismanagement of resources:
– Manila imperialism: conflicting policies such as PD
1152 (1977) and PD 704 (1975).
– The spatial barrier brought about by the country’s
archipelagic nature made it difficult for a
centralized form of governance.
– Jurisdictional conflicts created confusion and
hindered the implementation of key resource
protection laws (BFAR transfer from MNR to
MAF).
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Community-based resource management
• 1970s -1980s
• First case studies: Sumilon Island (1974) and Apo
Island (1985).
• Illustrated the value of empowering communities
to manage their coastal areas and resources
through their own initiative and with legal and
institutional support of barangay and municipality.
• Formula for reversal of fisheries decline: protect
25% of the reef, harvest the rest with nondestructive fishing methods. (Rashid 1992)
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The Advent of Integrated Coastal Management
• 1990s onwards
• Key milestones in political landscape
(decentralization), legislation, and development
approaches.
• New CRM focused projects built on the rich
experiences of small community-based CRM projects
such as San Salvador Island (Zambales), Mabini
(Batangas), Apo Island (Negros Oriental), Balicasag
(Bohol), and Pamilacan (Bohol) – and scaled these up.
• Coastal management projects expanded their scope
both vertically (management options) and
horizontally (stakeholder partnerships).
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The Advent of Integrated Coastal Management
• Big donor-assisted projects in partnership with
DENR and/or DA-BFAR provided the foundation for
ICM in the Philippines:
– Central Visayas Regional Project (WB, 1986-1992)
– Fishery Sector Program (ADB, 1990-1997)
– Coastal Resource Management Project (USAID, 19962004)
– Fisheries Resource Management Project (ADB & Japan,
1998-2005)
• Laying out lessons learned and best practices
based on vast experiences.
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Recap of Philippine CRM timeline
DENR, DA-BFAR, and DILG (2001). Philippine coastal guidebook series (8 volumes).
• CRM in Philippines has emerged from 30 years of experiences in
more than 100 coastal municipalities, covering about one-sixth of
the 18,000 km shoreline (CRMP, 2003).
• Current challenge is sustainability of ICM endeavors
through effective and wider spread eco-governance.
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CRM and ICM Planning
Processes
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Processes of adaptive management
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptive_management
• Learning by doing.
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Importance of ICM
• Where competition for coastal resources exist,
careful design of ICM can ensure continued benefits
from some natural areas.
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Major features of integrated approach
• Multi-sectoral, multi-agency, and multidisciplinary
• Creates opportunities to link planning and
implementation
• Involves those affected by management
schemes in all phases of the strategy
• Promotes sharing of experiences among
resource managers
• Directs research at questions of direct
relevance to resource management
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CRM Philippine Framework
DENR, DA-BFAR, and
DILG (2001). Philippine
coastal guidebook
series (8 volumes).
• Ultimately a guide to the planning and implementation
of ICM for LGUs
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ICM collaborative partnerships
and management strategies
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Co-management/Collaborative Partnerships
• NGO-Community/PO Partnership
One of the most common institutional partnership schemes
in CB-CRM. Coral reef management through an MPA or
marine sanctuary is made possible by the organizing efforts of
an NGO and local residents, but subsequently and usually
draw the support of local government.
• NGO-PO-LGU Collaboration
Similar to the NGO-PO partnership, but with LGU assistance
playing a more distinct role. The more involved an LGU is,
the greater the possibility of self-sustainability.
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Cont.. Collaborative Partnerships
• Academe-PO/Community Partnership
The academe takes an active role in CRM, other than the
provision of technical assistance. Akin to the role of an
NGO, academes can also initiate organizing efforts with a
local community to plan and implement an MPA.
• Co-management Partnerships
Often large provincial or nationwide collaborative projects
that focus on making coastal resource management a basic
service in LGU’s.
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Coastal management options
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
MPA establishment and management
Legal arrangements and institutional development
Fisheries management
Habitat management
Coastal zoning
Shoreline management
Coastal tourism management
Enterprise and livelihood management
Waste management
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Legal arrangements and institutional
developments
Objectives:
• To improve mechanisms and arrangements for local
governments on coastal management.
• To enhance community participation in coastal
management planning, legislation, implementation,
monitoring and evaluation.
• To strengthen environmental and fishery law
enforcement.
• To strengthen the network and linkage with other
LGUs, national government, international, and local
organizations, and community or people’s organizations.
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Legal arrangements and institutional
developments
Strategies
• Legislation of comprehensive CRM ordinance
• Formation and strengthening of PO’s
• Strengthening of FARMCs, Bantay dagat, and fish
wardens
• Monitoring, control, and surveillance
• Training and staff development on CRM
• IEC
• Fund sourcing
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Fisheries Management
Objectives
• To increase productivity of fishery resources in order to
achieve food security.
• To regulate access to municipal waters and reserve its
resources for the benefits of the municipal fishers.
• To regulate the exploitation of fisheries resources and limit
fishing efforts to sustainable levels.
• To ensure the rational and sustainable development and
management of the fishery resources.
• To develop monitoring, control, and surveillance mechanisms
and strengthen law enforcement units.
• To ensure equity in fisheries exploitation.
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Fisheries Management
Strategies
• Designation of closed season in harvesting commercially and
ecologically important fish and invertebrates during their
spawning season and/or juvenile stage.
• Designation of closed areas for identified migration routes of
commercially and ecologically important fish.
• Registration, licensing, and permitting of fishers, fishing gear
and fishing boats.
• Sustainable management of coastal aquaculture.
• Regulation on the deployment, use of and access to artificial
reefs.
• Regulation of the construction and operation of fish corrals,
other fishing gear activities that occupy space in coastal waters.
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Habitat Management
Objectives
• To protect, conserve, and rehabilitate existing habitats.
• To improve productivity and biodiversity of corals,
seagrasses, mangroves, and estuaries.
Strategies
• Establishment of marine protected areas.
• Management of mangroves under the community-based forest
management framework.
• Protection of seagrass beds by regulating fishing activities that
are destructive to habitat.
• Enforcement of environmental and fisheries laws.
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Coastal Zoning
Objectives
• To eliminate use conflict by delineating zones for
specific uses or activities in the municipal waters.
• To regulate activities in the different zones.
Strategies
• Delineation of municipal waters’ boundaries
• Designation of zones for specific uses (tourism,
aquaculture, rehabilitation, etc.)
• Regulation of fishing activities and use of fishing gear
in every zone.
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Shoreline Management
Objectives
• To protect the shoreline from further degradation due to
destructive activities.
• To maintain access of the people to foreshore area.
• To minimize erosion and loss of beach to natural and human
induced forces.
Strategies
• Regulation of sand and coral mining
• Setting up and maintenance of coastal setbacks for all
development.
• Climate change mitigation.
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Coastal Tourism Management
Objectives
• To provide economic incentives for local communities by
optimizing the tourism potential of certain areas.
• To develop local capability in ecotourism projects that
contribute to better coastal management and community
development.
• To develop incentives for resource conservation.
Strategies
• Regulation on number of tourism facilities and activities
• Ecotourism product development
• Visitors education and management, including waste disposal
• Users fees and appropriate business development.
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Enterprise and livelihood management
Objectives
• To develop alternative and supplement employment to
fishers in order to lessen their fishing effort and
pressure to the sea.
• To diversify income source of the fishers to lessen
dependence on fishing.
Strategies
• Identification and implementation of environmentfriendly and economically-feasible projects.
• Identification of beneficiaries.
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Waste Management
Objectives
• To eliminate or minimize the potential adverse
impact of waste to both human and environmental
health.
Strategies
• Solid waste disposal program (segregation, recycling,
and composting)
• Sewage waste treatment, especially for tourism and
industrial facilities
• Water quality monitoring.
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The MPA as one coastal
management option
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Rationale behind an MPA
• MPA establishment and management replicates the
ICM adaptive management process.
• Local experience and research has proven that MPA’s
are the most successful coastal management option to
date.
• Avoid the tragedy of the commons by designating
community property rights for sustainable
management of marine resources.
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General Framework for MPA Establishment and
Management
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A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR
COMMUNITY-BASED MARINE SANCTUARIES
IN THE PHILIPPINES
Steps in
the Process
1. Community
Entry,
Preparation
and
Appraisal
Time
(months)
Actions Taken
3-6
 Larger community consultation for
initial identification of issues
 Community site selected
 Community affairs officer assigned
full-time to the community
 Baseline surveys conducted
 Selected PCRA activities conducted
 Informational meetings (formal and
informal) and discussions
concerning the project and goals
 Preliminary public education
activities carried out
 Community core group identified
 Stakeholder analysis conducted and
identification of PCRA participants
Intermediate and
Final Outcomes
 CRM issues in the
community identified
 Socioeconomic,
cultural and
environmental context
understood by project
team and members of
core group
 Widespread
community
understanding of
project objectives and
approach
 Information of
resource status
gathered
Steps in
the Process
Time
(months)
Actions Taken
2. Planning
including:
• Public
Education
• Capacity
Building
• Community
Consultation
• Ordinance
Formulation
12-24
 Cross-visits with successful
marine sanctuary sites
 Public education on coral reef
ecology, marine sanctuary
concept, environmental laws and
enforcement
 Training on community
monitoring and mapping of reef
 Selected early actions on issues
of concern to the community
implemented
 Training on financial management
and accounting
 Study tour, training or
development of potential
supplemental livelihood
opportunities such as tourism
 Community core group training
on coastal management
 Community ordinance contents
drafted
 Community consultation
meetings and discussions (formal
and informal) conducted
 Community ordinance revised
and final version completed
Intermediate and
Final Outcomes
 Community understanding of
human impacts on coastal
resources, environmental laws and
sanctuary concept
 Map of the coral reef developed by
the community to be used as basis
of marine sanctuary site selection
 Community awareness of local
coral reef conditions and capacity
for on-going monitoring established
 Widespread community support for
the project objectives and marine
sanctuary concept
 Community capacity for
participatory planning,
implementation and fund
management strengthened
 Community capacity to address
CRM problems with simple
solutions strengthened
 Widespread participation of
stakeholders in planning
 Widespread/majority community
consensus on marine sanctuary
location, size, allowable and
prohibited activities, sanctions and
management arrangements
Steps in
the Process
Time
(months)
3. Community
Ordinance
Approval
1-12
Actions Taken
 Vote of approval for the
sanctuary at a community
meeting(s) and by
barangay resolution
 Approval and signatures
on the municipal ordinance
by the municipal council
 Review of municipal
ordinance by the province
 Formal opening ceremony
conducted with
government
representatives in
attendance
 Funding mechanisms for
implementation (donations,
fees, fines, grants,
endowments, got.
Allocations, etc.) identified
and planned
Intermediate and
Final Outcomes
 Formal acceptance of the
marine sanctuary by the
community and local
government
 Sound legal basis for
management and
enforcement
 Financial resources for
implementation determined
Steps in
the Process
Time
(months)
4. Implementation and
Adjustment
(forever)
Actions Taken
 Boundary markers installed and
maintained
 Information signboards
installed
 Management plan developed
 Management committee
meeting
 Reef and fisheries monitoring
conducted
 Enforcement actions occurring
 Sanctions taken against
violators
 Public education ongoing
 Implementation activities
budgeted
 Implementation funds received,
spent and accounted for
 Coordination and networking
with external technical, financial
or organizational support
institutions occurring
 Program monitoring evaluation
Intermediate and
Final Outcomes
 High compliance with rules
governing the marine sanctuary
 Effective management of the
marine sanctuary occurring
 Improved coral cover inside the
marine sanctuary
 Increased fish abundance and
diversity in the sanctuary
 Increased catch of reef-related
target fish species adjacent to
the sanctuary
 Other quality-of-life
improvements/benefits for the
community attained
 Sufficient resources (financial
or in-kind) for the
implementation allocated,
obtained and utilized
 Access to outside support
systems maintained
 Management measures
adjusted as needed
Source: Crawford, B., M. Balgos, C. Pagdilao. 2000. Community-based sanctuaries in the Philippines: A Report
on Focus Group Discussions. Coastal Management Report #2224. PCAMRD Book Series No. 30. CRC. pp. 2627.
Parting question..
What stage of the MPA
establishment and
management process is your
site MPA currently in?
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