Unit 2 Theoretical basis of environmental science
Chapter 8
Ecological environment
Professor
Liu Jingling
School of Environment, Beijing Normal University
jingling@bnu.edu.cn
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jingling@bnu.edu.cn
School of Environment, Beijing Normal University
JinLan environmental ecology [M]. Beijing: Higher education press, 1992, 5.
Lu Mingzhong. China's environmental ecology - The primary research on the
relationship between China's population, economic and ecological environment
[M].Beijing: Meteorological press, 1994.
Ge Jianxiong. The living space of future [M].Shanghai: Sanlian bookstore, 1998.
Cheng Lianxi. Environmental ecology. M]. Beijing: Higher education press, 2002
 Environmental ecology---the study content of environmental ecology
 From the subject system, environmental science----environmental ecology
 The subject division of modern ecology, applied ecology---environmental
ecology
 It is a emerging and strong comprehensiveness subject
 Applied ecology theory is subject studies the internal change mechanism, of
ecosystem under the man-made disturbace, discipline and positive effect for
human, seeking the recovery of damaged ecosystem, reconstruction and
protection measures.
jingling@bnu.edu.cn
School of Environment, Beijing Normal University
 Environmental ecology is a emerging interdisciplinary subject,
its content and system are in the process of gradual
development, and its study content including the following
aspects
（ 1 ）Reasonable utilization and protection of natural resource.
（ 2 ）The biology effect of environmental pollution.
（ 3 ）The comprehensive treatment of environmental pollution.
（ 4 ）The monitoring and detection of environmental pollution.
（ 5 ）The influence of environmental pollution on structure and
function of ecosystem.
jingling@bnu.edu.cn
School of Environment, Beijing Normal University
Main content
8.1 The role and status of environmental ecology.
8.2 Basic theory and principle of ecosystem.
8.3 The influence of disturbance on ecosystem.
8.4 Restoration ecology theory
8.5 Ecology system management
8.6 Case study
Questions and discussion
 What do you think the most principles of ecology?
Do you know the important expression of ecology
for environmental science and engineering?
 Please take examples what ecology theory and
method are used in the process of environmental
problems resolution?
8.1 The role and status of environmental ecology
8.1.1 Environmental ecology
In order to provide new ideas for the ecology damage and
environmental problem, it studies the problems such as
change mechanism, discipline and restoration measure of
damaged ecosystem.
8.1.2 Study content
The feedback effect of ecosystem internal change mechanism
on human disturbance, the science seeking ecosystem
restoration, reconstruction and protective measure.
The water loss and
soil erosion of loess
plateau accounts for
38% the land square
of China
The original beautiful
Ke Er Bi grassland
has become the
largest desert of
China
A
C
The excessive
forestation trees in
Taihang Mountain
results in quick
B
D
Figure 8-1 Ecological environmental The excessive
degradation caused by human disturbacegrazing of yak in the
source of
Changjiang River
8.2
The theory of ecological system
8.2.1 Ecosystem
It was firstly proposed by England ecologist: A.G.Tansley in 1935.
 Definition: the uniform unity that formed by gradual progressing material
circulation and energy flotation that all the biology lived in certain space
are.
 Function: biology generation, material circulation and information
transmission
 Structure is the basis of function, structure and function is mutually coexists, restricted and transformed.
 The inherent quality: feedback(such as self-control)
The development and extension of concept
 R.L.Lindeman（1950）
When human are studying the ecosystem of lakes, they are
inspired by the sayings of Great trees keep down the little
ones, proposing the conception of food chain. And he proposes
ecological pyramid theory inspired by sayings that one
mountain can not survive two tigers.
Fosberg(1963)
 There is one or more biology organism and environment composing
the system with function and interaction, including its space
relations, nature characteristic, habitat and ecological niche, its
organism and storage, input, output and behavior.
 Poluni and Woethington（1990）proposed that eco-compound was
mostly used in system with big effect and weak conformability.
jingling@bnu.edu.cn
School of Environment, Beijing Normal University
Discussion on the concept
 He Yunlong; Wang Linhe; Zhang Guosheng（Chinese Agricultural
Science Bulletin, editorial department email. the second issue of
2008
key words： ecosystem; concept; level;
subject：Discussion about the concept of ecosystem
 Ecosystem has become one of the most important conceptions in ecology study, but it has
different connotations due to different researchers, study object and so on, it uniformly uses
definition of Tansly in expression, enables one ecosystem represent different definitions. In
order to make clear the connotation and denotation of ecosystem, this article uses the form
logic and set theory as the tools, combining the species relations between ecosystem and
general system, it summarizes the application example of ecology and deepening analyzes
conceptions such as environment, boundary and so on, so it can not clearly express study
object. In the aspect of individual, population, community, landscape, biosphere, the
ecosystem is not existed, they are the denotation of ecosystem, ecosystem that is ecology
system, the study object of ecology is ecosystem, it can not integrate environment into e
ecosystem, although ecosystem can not separate itself from environment and independently
survives.
jingling@bnu.edu.cn
School of Environment, Beijing Normal University
The fundamental feature of ecosystem
There are 4 main compositions in ecosystem. That is inanimates environment , producers, consumers and
decomposers.
（1）In-animates environment including: climate element, inorganic matter,
organic matter.
（2）producers
It mainly means green plants; they are taking the leading role in ecosystem.
（3）consumers
Heterotrophy, mainly means various biology living on other organisms, including
herbivore animals, carnivorous animals, omnivorous animals
（4）decomposers
Heterotrophy, mainly are bacterium and fungi, also including some protozoans and
corrosive animals such as earthworm, termite, vulture and so on. They decompose
the residual body, excrement and each complicated compound of animals and
plants, absorbing decomposition product, and decompose the simple organism into
simple inorganic matter, while the participation of inorganic matter into material
cycling can be reused by autotrophy.
The construction and function of ecosystem
construction：
It means morphological structure (the time and space
change of species group) and nutrient structure (food
chain/net, ecological niche).
function ：
It means energy balance, material balance and information
transmission
 types：
The classifications of natural ecosystem, classification of
compound ecosystem and classification of environmental
problem.
Pattern, process and scale of landscape
 pattern：
It includes unit types of landscape, trees and space
arrangement, configuration. It has equation type, random
type and aggregation type.
 process：
It stresses the behavioral characteristics of ecology process,
such as species group trends, species succession, material
cycling and energy flotation, etc
 scale：
When studying, the adopted time and space unit.
8.2.2
Complex ecosystem theory
 The level theory of ecosystem: it studies the time and space lamination structure.

Level difference of high and low level: time and space, complexity, resolution ratio and
process ratio.
grade
biosphere
landscape
ecosystem
community
time
species
resolutio
n fall
individual
organ /tissue
空间
Slow
behavio
r
process
cells
complexity
Figure 8-2 The level and behavior of ecosystem（quoted from
Cai Xiaoming，2000）
8.2.3 Biodiversity
图8-3 生物多样性是人类宝贵的财富
jingling@bnu.edu.cn
北京师范大学环境学院
Biodiversity
★ Biodiversity is refer to the biology, the ecology
compound body that biology depends on as well as the
total sum of diversity and variability. It is one of the most
important content enables environment become diverse.
★ Biodiversity is the basic character of living system.
Living system includes many aspects, from microcosmic
to macroscopic; each aspect has diversity, now many
studies are focus on the following:
Genetic diversity
Species diversity
Ecosystem diversity
Landscape diversity
Biodiversity theory
☆
It is developing from biology evolution theory, the biology
geography of biology diverse distribution. Both are related and
have the tendency to comprehensively develop into ecology
theory, it provides theory basis to environmental science and
engineering.
☆
It reflects the nature of geography space difference, such as
circle layer, land and sea, the differentiation of land and sea.
The geography commonly divides geography differentiation
into zonality, regionality, regional, local, locality, and microzone and so on. It has provided
Questions and thinking
 The value of biology diversity?!
 The value of ecology?
 The value of environment?
 The value of biology diversity in city?
 How to protect biology diversity in city?
City development and protection??
其他
10%
生态旅游
17%
固氮作用
3%
多年生作物
6%
植物抗性
3%
授粉
7%
）
生物治疗
4%
（
作物和畜牧业
5%
海洋食物
9%
生物防治
5%
Figure The percentage of economy and profit provided by
biology diversity to human economic society. quoted from Cai
Xiaoming
废物循环
26%
CO2螯合作用
5%
8
4
The value of biodiversity
Two typesDirect value: it is the biology resource and
industry raw material used by human.
of value：
Indirect value: important compositions that can
adjust climate stabilize hydrology; protect solid,
aesthetics, tourism resource.
The diversity caused the stability
Two views ：
The diversity is irrelative to stability
even positive relative
Rivet assumption: specie of ecosystem has the
Two
same important function.
assumptions ：
Redundancy assumption: the function of species
is different; some species have big overlapping in
ecology function.
Gree card：
the index and measure of diversity
 α: the index of diversity: much and less of species in community, that is
the richness of species; the relative density of community, that is
uniformity of community. Such as
 The index of specie richness, Simpson index and Shannon-Wiener index.



β: the index of specie richness: the specie succession degree according to
change of gradient environment. The little common species in different
community, the more diversity of β. Such as
Whittaker index and Cody index.
γ:diversity index: the total specie diversity of regions, it is measure by the
richness of species
8.2.4 The succession of ecosystem
 Definition: As time goes by, the structure of ecosystem will also change.

Community regularity, direction study is the argumentation focal point.

Reason of occurrence: the migration, distribution of plant vegetative form and
mobility of animals, the change between and within species, the disturbance of
human activity.

The resource ratio theory of Tilman plays an important role in explaining the
succession of ecosystem(1985).

Succession theory of ecosystem: unit climax theory, poly-climax theory and
climax-pattern hypothesis.
The resource ratio theory of Tilman thinks:
The change of resource ratio finally results in the change of
components of community species, that is resource ratio determines
the succession process of ecosystem, resource controls biology flora,
biology reversely changes its relying environmental conditions.
Including: nutrient, moisture, light consumed by biology.
Humidity and temperature are not resource.
Unit climax theory: only climate is the determination element of
succession, others are the secondary.
Poly-climax theory: except for climate, other elements can determine
the formation of climax.
Climax-pattern: within any regions, environmental elements are
gradually changing; it will have gradient change by environmental
conditions, each specie of climax community is also successively
changing .
Multiple succession theory: the succession direction is determined by
nature of environmental elements, succession process exists
phenomenon multiple channels, that is succession has homoplasy and
divergence.
Figure 8-5 The succession process of plant under natural
conditions （quoted from Cunningham,etc, 2002）
8.3 The theory of disturbance ecology
8.3.1 Disturbance
（Disturbance，Perturbation and Stress）
connotation ：
Aspect of ecology element: the discontinuously and intermediately happening
elements outside community abruptly interrupts or continually exists the abnormal
fluctuation of elements, causes the obvious change of organism or specie group or
community, enables ecosystem damage or change the phenomenon.
Disturbance of landscape scale means the
strongly change of landscape structure and function.
It means disturbace of irresistible natural force, it is divided into physical
factor (fire, hail, storm, and flood) and biological factor (the distinction of
carnivorous animals, pressure relief of graminivorous animals and change
in vegetation trend). The geographical area is different and natural inference
factors are also different.
types of disturbance
 1. according to the motivation of disturbance
Due to the disturbance formed by human production activity and
other social activity produces each influence on natural
environment and ecological environment.Its effect scope,
damage intensity; potential harm and induction are far surpass
natural disturbance
 Natural disturbance
 Human disturbance
The influence of endogenous factor on ecosystem, for
 2. according to the resource of disturbance
example, the trees dumpage, competition between
species in forest ecosystem





Endogenous disturbance
Outer of system, such as strong hail, flood, storm
and salvage,etc.
Exogenous disturbance
3. according to the property of disturbance
Human activity such as geology, climate disaster, forestation
and excessive grazing for a long time
destructive disturbance
gain disturbance
Such as reasonable felling, trimming, artificial
updating, as well as lower productivity and
efficiency forest transformation and so on
Ecological significance of disturbance
It is useful for system
evolution
Elements maintaining
ecosystem balance and
stability
Adjustment of
ecosystem
It is useful for disturbace effect can reduce
one or several superiority of some species,
increase resources for other species; increase
the specie diversity, which is useful
for the natural succession of system
Species in the continually changeable
environment can better bear environmental
pressure that that in the stable environment,
there are species of unstable community have
better ability to adapt to environment.
Moderate grazing that is mild disturbace
can facilitate the diversity and productivity
of community.
The connotation of disturbance
 disturbance
The space arrange distribution characteristics of disturbace object
range
frequency and
cycle
disturbance
intensity
time scale
Of the same space and range or organization level,
the frequency time in unit time.
The energy values presented by disturbace factors when
the disturbace happens. Its quantification analysis
confirms the detailed unit according to the detailed
type of disturbace, it is usually divided into:
mild, moderate and severe disturbace.
The detailed time and time span when disturbace happens,
disturbace of different time will produce different
disturbace effect, for example, fishing catching,
forest felling, the artificial disturbace time is
different, so the ecology effect will have big difference.
Disturbance characteristics
multiplicity
relativity
dimension
incongruity
universality
It has influence of many aspects on
ecosystem.
The same incident, it forms disturbance on
ecosystem under some conditions other
conditions also have influence.
The difference in study scale, the definition of
disturbance is also different. For the
disturbance incident on ecosystem, it may be
normal disturbance in landscape scale.
The disturbance result may result in the
capability enhancement of heterogeneity; it
can not coordinate with the original
landscape.
It is existed in each scale and each space of
nature world.
The main form of human disturbance
 The felling and reclamation for forest and
grassland vegetation.
 Pollution(pesticide, life and industry rubbish and
so on)
 Collection (salvage collection on economic and
medical valuable biology resources).
 Hunting and catching.
 Introduction of alien species.
Biological invasion
Because human activity intentionally
or unintentionally introduces the
foreign species into locals, they are
quickly growing and generating,
which harms the local production and
life, change the local environment and
bring great harm.
Water hyacinth also names as eichhornia crassipes, it is originally produced in
South America, one of the harmful grass. It is extensively distributed in river,
lake, asexual reproduction speed is very quick, forms the single superior
community, blocks up the river channel and fills the lake.
8.3.2 Disturbance and ecosystem adjustment
Ecosystem has the self-adjustment and recovery ability,
but it is very limited, once the interference exceeds the
adjustment ability, it will have irreversible damage.
ecos
yste
m
struc
ture
and
func
tion
Normal
operation
scope
resistance
adisturbance
resilience
b
degra
recovery
datio
n
time
Figure 8-6
The conception structure reflects ecosystem structure and
function on disturbance response
8.4 Restoration ecology theory
8.4.1 Connotation and characteristics of
ecological restoration
Connotation ：
The main elements and process in changing the
ecosystem degradation, adjust and optimize system
order, enables its structure function and ecology
potentiality restores to the certain or original level
even up to the higher level.
Protecting the partial
regions that are severely interfered.
涵盖范围:
Increasing the land productivity of the degenerated
land.
Enhancing
natural protection value of landscape
Recovering landscape scale and ecological process of partial regions.
Figure 8-1
Type and area of degraded ecosystems in China
Type of
ecosystems
Total area/106hm2
Proportion /%
140
Degraded area
/106hm2
28
grassland
400
132
33
forest land
165.2
31.2
25
0.130
――
――
0.743
0.245
32
2
――
――
farmland
desert
freshwater
surface
scrapped mine
site
20
The principle of ecological
restoration
The principle
of ecology
The
principle of
The principle of social
economic and technology
The principle of ecological
restoration and reconstruction
natural law
The principle
of geography
Principle
of regional,
difference
and zonality
statistics
Unity principle
Cooperative restoration
principle
Scattering structure
principle
Openness principle
Controllability
Element principle dominated ecological elements.
Restrictive and endurance law.
Principle of energy flotation and material circulation.
Community density restriction and species effect
principle
Complementation principle of ecological niche and
specie
Interference principle of boundary effect and ecology
succession principle
Biology diversity principle
Food chain and food net principle
Patch-passage—substrate landscape style principle
Space heterogeneity principle.
Space scale and level theory
principle
Economy feasibility and sustainability principle
Technology operability principle
Social acceptability principle
Harmfulness principle, minimum risk principle.
Combination principle with biology, ecology and
engineering technology.
Benefit principle
Sustainable development principle.
Figure 8-7 Basic discipline, theory and principle of ecological
recovery and rebuilding （ revised by Sheng Lianxi，2002）
Figure 8-8 Soil and water conservation and ecological restoration of
Loess Plateau
B
C
D
8.4.2 Ecological engineering
Characteristics: lower consumption, much profit and
sustainable
Concerned theory: system theory, engineering theory and
ecology theory.
Model: conception, letter, physics and math model.
Application: effluent and sewage resources disposal, forestry
protection, lake eutrophia, aquaculture, land improvement,
wasted land development and resource regeneration and so on
Figure 8-2 Comparison of ecological engineering and environmental
engineering, biology engineering and traditional engineering
type of
engineering
basic unit
basic theory
Traditional
engineering
Natural and
social system
engineering
science
basic
environmental
engineering
Natural and social
system
Environmental
science
Environmental
engineering
fossil energy
fossil energy
basic charge
a large number
a large number
design
features
act of man
energy
control
structure
the
relationship
act of man
arbitrariness
pollution source
damage
recooling
and landscape
Ecology, environment
science and
engineering
Renewable
energy,such as solar
ecological
engineering
cell
genetics
Cell biology
fossil energy
energy
Reasonable
a large number
organization which
assisted by human
Organism and
act of man
environment
disturbace
Coordination, no
disturbance
genetical
pollution
with nature
biodiversity
ecological
engineering
Ecological system
reduction
change
maintain or increase
change
Notes：quoted from Qin Pei, An Shuqing, Yan Jingsong. Ecological engineering. Nanjing:
nanjing university press, 2002
8.5.1 Value evaluation of ecosystem
Ecosystem service: the environment conditions and utility
human depend on to survive
option value
direct value
ecosystem value
intrinsic value
four levels
four types
indirect value
Value evaluation of ecosystem
In 1997, ecologists such as Costanza carried out evaluation
on ecosystem type in the world, concluded that service total
value of global ecology was 33200billion dollar/year.
First periodical Chinese Science Bulletin in 2000, thesis
publicized by Zhang Xinshi academician in Value of
Ecological System in China. He carries out imputation for
the service function of China ecosystem, the total value of
China ecosystem value is 7783.448 billion Yuan(RMB)/year,
accounting for 2.71% of the world.
OCED
economic value categorizing systems of biodiversity
total economic
value
use value
direct use
value
Direct consumer
goods
food
biomass
entertainme
nt
health
non-use value
indirect
use value
Functional
benefits
Ecological
function
Flood control
Storm protection
option value
Direct and
indirect use
value in furture
Biodiversity
Protecting
biological
environment
heredity value existence value
maintain the use
value and nonuse value
knowledge the
continued existence
value such as moral
faith
irreversible
living
environment
living environment
endangered
species
Reduce the tangibility of personal value
Figure 8-9 OCED economic value categorizing systems of biodiversity （quoted from
Sheng Lianxi，2002）
8.5.2 Management theory of ecosystem
Ecosystem management: under the perquisite that fully understand the
integrity and complexity of ecosystem, aims at the expected material
and product, ecological and social benefit, the management activity
according to long time of monitoring result of the key ecological
process and important ecological elements(Liao Liping, Zhao Shidong,
1999).
Basic principle: integrity, dynamic, regeneration, balance and
diversity9environmental ecology, Sheng Lianxi etc, 2002, pp268-274).
Difficulty in management: the unexpected incident of ecosystem and
different response for disturbance lacking of the ecology model
establishment knowledge and principle, data, quality, sampling
deviation and fault analysis.
8.5.4 Ecology fragmentation
Ecology fragmentation
It means due to human factors or environmental
change and resulted in larger square natural habitat
of landscape is gradually cut and broken or the
ecological function is decreasing. Including:
 Form (landscape structure) fragmentation.
The reduction in habitat, the complicated plaque shape,
increases in boundary effect, reduction in core area square.
 Fragmentation in ecology function
Ecology environment quality within habitat is decreasing,
the element space of natural environment is not matching,
the adaptability of environment reduces, there is no obvious
change in outer shape, it is easily ignored, now it has
attracted the highly attention of ecologist
Figure of ecology fragmentation
jingling@bnu.edu.cn
School of Environment, Beijing Normal University
8.6 Case study
8.6.1 Environment management in natural protection area
（1） Choice and square of protection areas
Place choice: the protection area must have enough complicated
habitat type; protect key species, especially for the key existence of
mutual benefit and mutualism species.
Square confirmation: according to the balance hypothesis of
ecosystem, the larger square, and the more beneficial for biology
diversity. The key point is that ecology characteristics of protected
target species. The square of surround ecosystem and that similar to
protection area can be much less.
Kekexili nature conservation
The Tibetan antelopes are migrating in
conservation hinterland
（3） Function division of conservation hinterland
Cuona Lake is the core area of black-necked crane protection area in Lincuo
of Xizang, the Qingzang railway under construction is only more than 10
meters away form it in order to prevent from being polluted, and people
implement strict engineering supervision and control measure.
Cuo Na Lake
（4） The connection and corridor between conservation，
landscape protection
Tibetan herdsmen are ongoing
vegetation restoration and reconstructi
Wild animal Channel mimetic diagram of Qinghai-Tibet Railway
The upward passage of tunnel: it is
designed for highland animals in high
mountain, it sets fence prevents animals
entering tunnel, and combines with bridge
forming bridge-tunnel compound passage, Passage of level gentle slope: the road
there are totally 3.
base angle on both sides of railway is
not exceeding 35 degree, the height is
less than 2.5 meters, and it sets warning
signboard, there are totally 7
The downward tunnel of bridge: it is
designed for medium and small animals
such as Tibetan antelope, goal and so on,
the net height if passage below tunnel is
required larger than 3 meters, there are
totally 13.
Thank you
Invite questions