• Biodiversity under Threat is the third of the ‘resources’ topics
• It examines the nature of biological resources, essentially plants and animals, and how people use and conserve them
• The earth’s biosphere represents a critical part of the planet as a life support system
• How humans act towards the biosphere reveals a great deal about their priorities, attitudes and understanding.
Biodiversity’s future?
An endangered Kangaroo in San
Diego Zoo

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• Biodiversity can be defined in a number of ways
• High levels of biodiversity might be seen as ‘healthy’ because narrow genetic diversity means species are vulnerable to disease
• Species diversity is the most commonly used definition.
Genetic
Diversity.
The genetic variability within one species.
Biodiversity
Bio…?
• Biodiversity – the variety of genes, species and ecosystems in an area.
• Biosphere – the thin veneer of living material on the planet’s surface
• Biome – a global scale ecosystem e.g. tropical forest
• Biomass - the total weight of living matter per unit area (dry)
Ecosystem
Diversity.
The range of different ecosystems, habitats and niches in an area.
Species
Diversity.
The number of different species within an area.

• Biodiversity is high on large, high, tropical (low latitude) islands –
Madagascar, Sumatra and Java are good examples
Lack of factors to limit growth: lots of light, warmth and rain promote growth
Altitude produces a range of ecological zones, each with its own species
Islands are isolated, so evolution goes its own way producing new unique species and varieties; this is called endemism.
Decay and nutrient cycling are rapid in tropical soils
The isolation of islands limits human influence
– at least until recently
Large areas can support large numbers of species in complex food chains, with space for top carnivores.
Today, humans factors are important – how protected is an area? Does poverty force people to destroy ecosystems?
How widespread is deforestation and the need for new farmland? How fast is population growing? Do people care about biodiversity?

• Due to several 100 years of intense human activity the global pattern of biodiversity is no longer ‘natural’.
• Humans can have both positive and negative influences on biodiversity
• Norman Myers coined the terms
‘ biodiversity hotspot’
• Hotspots are areas with:
High species richness
High levels of endemism (uniqueness)
Facing severe human threats
• Biodiversity hotspots (see map, next slide) are often tropical areas, islands and highlands –but also areas in the developing world where poverty leads to ecosystem destruction.

Combined area covers only 2.3% of the Earth's land surface. Each hotspot has already lost at least 70% of its natural vegetation. Over 50% of the world’s plant species and 42% of all terrestrial vertebrate species are endemic to the 34 biodiversity hotspots.

• Ecosystems have value
• In some cases, a financial value can be calculated – income from timber or tourism
• Much of the value of ecosystems cannot easily be calculated in monetary terms
• Healthy, biodiverse ecosystems are essential for maintaining human wellbeing
You need to be able to assess the value of ecosystem services with reference to one global
ecosystem (biome) e.g. coral reef, tropical forests, or temperate grasslands etc.
Regulating services
Atmospheric gases
Flood regulation
Disease regulation
Water Purification
Goods (provisioning services)
Food (hunting and gathering; farming)
Fresh Water supply
Wood and fibre
Fuel wood
Ecosystem services
Cultural services
Aesthetic value
Spiritual value
Educational value
Recreation and Leisure

• Biodiveristy hotspots are by definition areas which are under threat
• In some areas, threats are so great that extinction is occurring
• These areas can be seen on the map to the right
(compare to map on slide 7)
• Cold environments tend to be fragile and lack resilience
• Small islands have low populations of species, and have high endemism
• Forests are simply too resource rich to be left alone in many cases.

• Globally there are a number of trends which threaten ecosystems and biodiversity
Global Threat and its consequences
• Rising sea levels threaten coastal ecosystems (coral, mangroves, estuaries)
• Rising ocean temperatures threaten coral through bleaching
• Shifts in climate zones will stress biomes; migration patterns will be altered; some biomes (tundra, montane forest) may be wiped out.
• A widespread and complex problem, some 10-20% of dryland ecosystems are already degraded; grasslands are very vulnerable
• Overgrazing, climate change, poor farming practice and population pressure all contribute
• Once soil is eroded, ecosystem recovery is very difficult
Population pressure, poverty and the need to produce food are leading to unsustainable use of ecosystems worldwide
Overfishing, deforestation, conversion of ecosystems into farmland are all major causes of ecosystem and biodiversity loss

• In small scale areas, local threats can be numerous and represent a severe threat to ecosystems and biodiversity.
Localised deforestation; clearance for farming and urbanisation
Tourism development; trampling, erosion; urbanisation and associated pollution; increased risk of wildfires
Overfishing and harmful forms of fishing e.g. dynamite and cyanide
Mining, ranching and overgrazing, road building leading to ecosystem fragmentation
Runoff from farms and urban areas; eutrophication and heavy metals in rivers, lakes and seas
Siltation from runoff; increased risk of alien invasive species

• Functioning ecosystems have a continual flow of nutrients
(top) and energy (bottom) through them
• These systems are selfregulating, but prone to human disruption:
Deforestation or over fishing depletes the biomass store in the nutrient cycle
Climate change may affect precipitation, runoff, decay rate and weathering rate
Alien species can disrupt the food web, changing the balance of predators and prey
Eutrophication drastically increases available nutrients

• Our globalised world has increased the threat from alien invasive species
• These are species which move out of their natural habitat and colonise new areas, as a result of human activity
• Such species don’t move because they want to find a better place to live!
Successful invaders tend to be:
Capable of rapid reproduction
Able to disperse
Rapid growing
Tolerate a range of environmental conditions
Able to eat a wide range of foods
Species such as rats, goats, the Chinese
Mitten crab and Zebra Mussel are successful, and highly destructive, aliens
• Some aliens are introduced deliberately , perhaps as a food source, predator or ornamental species, but then escape into the wild and have unintended consequences
• Other aliens are accidental introductions

• Pristine ecosystems are rare today
• Highly developed countries tend to have few of them, although they may use their wealth to protect, conserve and restore ecosystems
• Wealth, and leisure time, tend to mean people have positive attitudes to the environment
• In NICs and RICs (see graph) threats to ecosystems tend to be severe, as ecosystems are used as resources and there is limited money for conservation
• In less developed countries, yet to industrialise, ecosystem may not be exploited yet – but for how long?

• Given that 6.5 billion humans cannot stop ‘using’ ecosystems, is there are safe way to use them?
• A certain level of use ( yield ) is sustainable – be it logging, fishing, hunting etc.
• This level is the Maximum
Sustainable Yield for a species / ecosystem – the level at which utilisation by humans does not lead to long term decline in species numbers
• In reality, taking the MSY leaves no room for error (or climate change, disease etc)
• The Optimum Yield is lower, and safer in terms of long term sustainability.

• Different players have conflicting views on biodiversity and ecosystems
• One player may have quite complex views e.g. wanting to protect the rainforest but still use its products
• Some players view ecosystems as a resource to be exploited, but this could be out of necessity
(subsistence) as well as for profit (TNCs)
• Other players may be much more conservation minded and focus on the ecological and aesthetic value of biodiversity
“First, get rid of them tree, then its perfect cattle country”
“Keep the forest, we’ll build the hotel on this side of the lake”
“What a great photo, but the car parking could be better”
“What do we want?
National Park!
When do we want it? Now!”

IGOs
UNESCO, UNEP
Individuals
Sting, Al Gore,
David
Attenborough
NGOs
Greenpeace,
WWF
Government
UK (local and national)
Different arms of the
UN are responsible for
CITES, World Heritage
Sites and helped with the Millennium
Ecosystem Assessment.
Global treaties, scientific research and monitoring are important aspects of their work.
Certain individual campaigners have the ability to reach a global audience and push for change.
Some NGOs, like WWF or The Nature
Conservancy help manage conserved areas.
Other like
Greenpeace, campaign to keep issues in the media, and lobby governments and IGOs
Government policy is crucial to ecosystems conservation and preservation of biodiversity.
Governments implement and police treaties like CITES and set up and run
National Parks and other conservation areas.

• There is not, and never will be, a limitless pot of money for conservation.
• Decisions have to be taken about what should be conserved , but these decisions are difficult to make
ICONIC species
Raising money for Pandas, Tigers and
Chimps is relatively easy, but how important are they at a global level?
KEYSTONE species
Species such as Bees, the pollinators of numerous plants, are crucial but hard to
‘sell’ to a wary public
HOTSPOTS
Hotspots are clearly under threat and very biodiverse; they would yield a lot of conversation per $ spent, but many areas (like the Arctic) are not biodiverse enough to qualify
ECOREGIONS
Ecoregions are large areas, like
Amazonia; conserving them would achieve a great deal, but would be expensive and difficult to police and monitor. Ecoregions do fit the ‘Single
Large’ rather than ‘several small’ model which would allow species to shift due to climate change.

• Ecosystems and biodiversity can be managed in a range of different ways
• There is a spectrum of different management strategies
• Some are sustainable as they balance ecological and human needs
Scientific
Preserve with no access for public
Wildlife
Parks and
Nature
Reserves
National
Parks; extractive reserves
Conservati on and
Developm ent areas
‘Paper
Parks’
Zoos and
Gene
Banks
Sustainable Management

• One of the most common form of conservation management is the
UNESCO Biosphere reserve model
• Biosphere reserves use the principle of zoning to conserve core ecological areas, whilst allowing some economic development – such as ecotourism or managed hunting or logging
• Educating local people to conserve resources for future generations is important
• Biosphere reserves usually have scientific research and monitoring activities too
• Famous locations such as the
Galapagos and Komodo NP use elements of the biosphere reserve model

• 2010 is the UN International Year of Biodiversity
• This alone shows how important biodiversity is to the planet’s future.
• UNEPs GEO-4 Project (2007) identifies 4 possible futures for biodiversity and ecosystems (below)
• There are some difficult choices to be made!
Markets First
Profit driven future, playing lipservice to sustainability. Continued degradation of biodiversity
Security First
‘Me First’ – the focus is on maintaining the wealth of the few in a very unequal world; IGOs like the UN are viewed with suspicion; the environment is there to be exploited.
Policy First
A greater balance between human and ecological wellbeing, but humans are put first by short-termist policymakers and ecosystems are protected when possible and expedient
Sustainability First
Equal weight is given to human and ecological wellbeing , and thinking is long-term to gradually recover lost ecological ground