Normal Brain
Brain Substance Abuse
“Begin with the Brain in Mind”
Donna Anderson and Tammy Reynolds
Teachers are…..
“THE BRAIN
CHANGERS”
DAVID SOUSA
http://www4.insinc.com/interactiveinnovation
s2007/davidsousa/player.html
David Sousa
(Interactive Innovations, 2007)
“WE’RE THE ONLY PROFESSION WHOSE JOB IT IS TO CHANGE
THE HUMAN BRAIN EVERY DAY! THAT’S WHAT WE DO!
SHORTEN IT:
TEACHERS ARE BRAIN
CHANGERS!!!!!”
GOALS

To become more “consumer literate” about
brain research


To help students learn more effectively
and joyfully
To understand neuroscience: adding the
science of education to our already
powerful knowledge of the art of
education.
Judy Willis, “IGNITE”: 2006
“Never before have neuroscience and
classroom instruction been so closely
linked. Because advances in technology
enable us to view the working brain as it
learns, educators can now find evidencedbased neuroimaging and brain-mapping
studies to determine the most effective
ways to teach”
Neuroscience….Brain Research
Our students’ brains have been black
boxes with their secrets locked
inside.
“A FOLKLORE PROFESSION”
This lack of scientific knowledge has put
us at the mercy of others (politicians,
etc.) who have sometimes made
decisions that are unrelated to what we
know is best for students.
WHAT’S IT GOING TO BE???
FAD ????
OR ……..
FOUNDATION??
SCIENTIFICALLY-BASED THEORY OF
TEACHING AND LEARNING
What has research shown about
teaching with the brain in mind….
Much research has:

confirmed what experienced educators have long known and used
in their classrooms.
What the research adds:

is an understanding of why certain strategies work so that we no
longer have to operate intuitively but can articulate and explain the
rationale for what we do.
Therefore…..

to make certain that brain research becomes a foundation rather
than a fad, educators need to take a proactive stance.
Educators need to…
1.
Become literate in the general structure and function of
the brain.
2.
Learn how to determine whether a study is valid or not.
3.
Be cautious when making applications of research
findings to the classroom.
4.
Don’t ignore the research from other fields such as
behavourial and cognitive psychology and educational
research.
5.
Begin to incorporate in our classrooms and schools
what we have learned about the brain.
Neuroscience and the
Classroom
In her book, “A Student’s Brain”, Kathie Nunley
outlines 4 key education principles linking
neuroscience to education:
1. First, is the issue of attention.
2. Secondly, we have to move students to higher
regions of the brain on day to day school activities
and homework.
3. The third big issue is that we are now beginning to
understand the power behind the lower parts of the
brain including the spine and cerbellum.
4. The fourth issue has to do with the development
and plasticity of the cortex.
ATTENTION
“Before students can learn, something or
someone, must capture their attention.”
The best ways to get attention is through
 novelty
 humour
 surprise
How long will you remember this commercial???
Getting attention can mean different things to
different people….

The brain is a novelty seeker (changes in
environment; something new or different). It is
always looking for stimuli.

Have to get the brain to pay attention to relevant
stimuli.

System in the lower brain (RAS) filters stimuli
and decides what to attend to and what to ignore
based on: physical need, novelty and self-made
choice.
Staying focused..
Relevance and Meaning

Staying focused
depends on
relevance and meaning. The brain is continually
trying to make sense of its world and determine
if information is meaningful.

To be meaningful students must care about the
information or consider it important.
“Information is most likely to get stored if it makes
sense and has meaning.”
David Sousa, 2006”
Even if students understand what is being taught and complete
assignments, if the information is not relevant and does not connect
to their past experiences it is unlikely it will be sent to long-term
storage for recall.
To Make Information Meaningful We Must..

Use past experiences to “hook”
the new information on to
OR

Create the experience with them
Emotions
“Emotions, thinking and learning are all linked!”
Emotions are learned in two
distinct ways:
1.
2.
Emotional climate of classroom.
Emotions associated with the
learning content.
Emotions drive attention, create
meaning, and have their own
memory pathways.
Emotions are not located in a single “emotional centre”, but are
distributed throughout the brain.
Stimulating the limbic system..
Meaning,
Emotions and
Learning
New
But when students
feel helpless and
anxious…
However, there
must be some
“Challenge”
learning is
the amygdala
Must have mild to
more likely to be
becomes overactivated, moderate challenge to
attended to and
preventing new
stimulate authentic
remembered if it has
information from
curiosity and
meaning to the
passing through to
engagement in
student and contains
memory circuits.
lessons.
an emotional “hook”. Information must get
This will motivate
An optimal level of
through the amygdala
students to work
emotion is necessary
to get to the
toward greater
for learning to take
hippocampus so it can
understanding and
place.
be sent to memory
connection with the
storage and reasoning
material.
parts of the brain.
In her book, “A Student’s Brain”, Kathie Nunley
outlines 4 key education principles linking
neuroscience to education:
2. Secondly, we have to move students to higher
regions of the brain on day to day school activities
and homework.
Higher levels of Thinking
There is a critical difference between difficulty and
complexity.
:
Complexity
…is the thought
processes the brain
uses to deal with
information.
Difficulty
…is the amount of
effort the learner
must expend within a
level of complexity
Bloom’s Taxonomy
Levels of Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy
Creating: Can student create
new product or point of view?
Evaluating: Can the student
justify a stand or decision?
Analysing: Can the student
distinguish between the
different parts?
Understanding: Can the
student explain ideas or
concepts?
Remembering: Can the student
recall or remember the
information?
Higher Order Thinking Increases Understanding
and Retention
“David
Sousa; How the Brain Learns: 2006”
Our ability to learn, remember, and recall is dependent
largely on the number of connections between neurons.
PET scans show that elaborative rehearsal, involving
higher-order thinking skills, engages the brain’s frontal
lobe.
This helps ALL learners make connections between past
and new learning, create new pathways, strengthen
existing pathways, and increase the likelihood that the
new learning will be consolidated and stored for future
retrieval.
When trying to challenge students,
classroom teachers are more likely to
increase difficulty rather than complexity
as the challenge mode.

With guidance and practice, slower
learners can regularly reach the higher
levels of Bloom’s revised taxonomy.

In her book, “A Student’s Brain”, Kathie Nunley
outlines 4 key education principles linking
neuroscience to education:
3. The third big issue is that we are now beginning to
understand the power behind the spinal cord and
lower parts of the brain, especially the cerebellum.
Cerebellum
•Cerebellum, or little brain, contains more
neurons than all of the rest of the brain put
together.
• Cerebellum coordinates movement and is
important in the performance and timing of
complex motor tasks (swinging golf club,
smooth a dancer’s steps).
•It may also store the memory of automated
movements (tying shoes, typing) which
improves performance as a sequence of
movement can be made with greater speed,
greater accuracy and less effort.
•It is also known to be involved in the mental
rehearsal of motor tasks which can also
improve performance and make it more
skilled.
“The brain can only do one
thing at a time!”
The mind can only pay conscious attention to one
thought at a time. You can only do two things at
once if one of them is automatic.
The role of the lower parts of the
brain and spinal cord have been
underestimated!
Routine Tasks
The spinal cord and lower parts of the brain can perform
these skills automatically, without conscious attention to
detail.
This allows the consious part of the brain the freedom
to attend to other mental activities.

Walking and talking

Driving a car and thinking

Reading and comprehending
Classroom Implications

Students engagement when reading

Reading Comprehension

Learning to read

Reading Programs

Variations in Development

Mindless School Work
“If the child is not
attending to the task
no learning is taking
place!”
In her book, “A Student’s Brain”, Kathie Nunley
outlines 4 key education principles linking
neuroscience to education:
4. The fourth issue has to do with the development
and plasticity of the cortex.
Brain Plasticity
“Neuroplasticity is simply the ability of the
brain to change as a result of daily
learning.”
David Sousa, 2006
Memory
Teachers with a greater understanding of the types of memory and how they
are form can select strategies that are more likely to improve the
retention and retrieval of learning.
Learning and retention are different. We can learn something for just a few
minutes and then lose it forever.
Learning
How our brain
acquires new
information and
skills.
Memory
Retention
How and where
our brain stores
learned
information and
skills.
Process where-by
long-term memory
preserves a
learning in a way
that it can locate,
identify, and
retrieve it
accurately.
Retention
This process is affected by many factors
including:





the degree of student focus
the length and type of rehearsal that occurred
the critical attributes that may have been
identified
the students’ learning style
the inescapable influence of prior learnings.
Rehearsal
Initial Rehearsal


This happens when the information first enters working memory
If the learner cannot attach sense or meaning, and if there is no time
for further processing then the information will likely be lost.
Secondary Rehearsal

Allows the learner to review the information, to make sense of it, to
elaborate on the details, and to assign value and relevance, thus
significantly increasing the chance of it going into long-term memory.

Rote rehearsal: not complex; learner needs to
remember and store information exactly as it
entered into working memory (memorize a
poem)

Elaborative Rehearsal; more complex thinking;
used when it is important to associate the new
learnings with prior learnings to detect
relationships; reprocesses information several
times to make connections to previous learnings
and assign meaning (interpret message of
poem).
The goal of learning is not just to acquire
knowledge, but to be able to use that knowledge
in a variety of different settings.


When deciding on how to use rehearsal in a lesson, teachers need
to consider the time available as well as the type of rehearsal
appropriate for the specific learning objective.
Remember, rehearsal will only contribute, but does not guarantee
transfer to long-term memory. However, there almost no long-term
retention without rehearsal.
Memory
“The real key to teaching is trying to help students put things into their memory system and then hopefully retrieve them
out again.”
“LEARNING IS MEMORY”
Step One:
SENSES: you need to see it, touch it, smell it, hear it, or taste it.
ATTENTION: If you are not attending to the task, it’s not going to be processed by the brain
and its memory.
Step Two:
Short Term Memory or Working Memory
Short term memory is very, very short, lasting only for about 20 seconds.
After this it goes into long term memory or is lost forever.
Step Three:
Long Term Memory (Procedural Memory and Declarative Memory)
Your brain labels the information and puts it in a category (in the hippocampus)
If you have no category, it can’t be stored.
Once stored in a category the brain will begin its natural process of crossreferencing the new items to previous items in other categories.
Basically, the hippocampus memorizes while the cortex learns.
Types of Memory
MEMORY
SHORT TERM MEMORY
Working Memory
LONG TERM MEMORY
DECLARATIVE MEMORY
(consciously processes facts and events)
EPISODIC MEMORY
(Knowledge of events in personal history to which
we have conscious access;
No control)
PROCEDURAL MEMORY
(Unconscious processing of skills; motor
(riding a bike) and cognitive (reading))
SEMANTIC MEMORY
(store intentionally learned information
Generally complete control)
Implications for Teaching…
1. In classrooms we spend most of our time trying to teach to semantic
memory. Can be frustrating because you have no control and because
sometimes students refuse to learn and remember. How much easier if we
could teach to episodic memory (hands on or experiential learning).
Students would learn and remember whether they wanted to or not. Now
the learning is in the teacher’s control.
2. ADD: A HOOK TO AN EMOTIONAL COMPONENT AND IT WILL BE SET FOR
LIFE!!! (Flashbulb memories: episodic with an emotional
attachment)
Teaching Method
3. Retention varies with teaching method
4. Primacy-Recency Effect
During a learning episode, we remember best that
which comes first, second best that which comes
last, and least that which is in the middle.
5. CHUNKING
There are 3 limits to our power of reasoning and
thinking: our limited attention span, working
memory and long term memory. Chunking is an
effective way of enlarging working memories
capacity and for helping the learner make
associations that establish meaning.
Neuroscience and Learning: The
Brain Connection
“Nothing entertains the
brain more than the
study of the human
brain.”
Kathie F. Nunley
WHAT’S NEXT ?????
1. Look at structure and function of
the brain
2. Classroom implications
3. Teaching children about their brain
Structure and
Function of the
Brain
NEURONS
“FIRING” THE NERVE
1. Senses stimulate nerve
cells
2. Electrical charge
3. Electrical charge moves
down axon
4. Some neurons covered with
myelin sheath (faster and
more efficient)
5. Electricity must “tag”
next neuron
7. “Tagging” is done in a
chemical fashion.
8.
Neurotransmitters are
released into the synapse.
9.
Neurotransmitters excite
or
inhibit next neuron
10. Some artificial
neurotransmitter
caffeine)
Myelination




There are millions of neurons,
which form the electrical
connections that let us think.
These cells send their signals
through axons, some of which
can reach a length of up to a
meter in humans.
Wrapped around many of the
axons are cells which form
myelin sheaths, composed
mainly of fat.
These sheaths serve to insulate
the axon, letting its signal travel
about 100 times faster than in an
unmyelinated axon.
Grey and White Matter







Grey matter (top 6 layers of cortex) is mostly made up of neurons
and synapses.
The amount of grey matter reaches a peak early in childhood
(before the age of 5), then declines until puberty when it increases
again, and then starts a consistent, gradual decline into late
adulthood.
Early fluctuations in grey matter are believed to partly reflect the
overproduction and subsequent elimination (or pruning) of synapses
(dendrites).
By age 2 years of age, about 40 000 new synapses are being
formed every second
White matter (areas of brain and spinal cord) is made up of axons
covered by a fatty white-looking substance called myelin, which
insulates the axons and facilitates the conduction of electrical
impulses.
White matter increases consistently during the course of childhood
and into adulthood, when it appears to taper off.
This increase in white matter is believed to reflect the gradual
myelination of axons.
Myelination




Myelinization is the key
to learning windows
Myelination is the
major cause of the
increase in a child's
brain size.
At birth, the infant
brain weighs 300-350
grams (2/3 to ¾ pound).
In the first four years of
life, the brain increases
to 80% of the adult
weight of 1200-1500
grams (2.6 - 3.3
pounds).
Plasticity of Learning and
Memory




It was once believed that as we aged, the brain’s
networks became fixed.
In the past two decades, however, an enormous
amount of research has revealed that the brain
never stops changing and adjusting.
Learning, as defined by Tortora and Grabowski
(1996), is “the ability to acquire new knowledge
or skills through instruction or experience.
Memory is the process by which that knowledge
is retained over time.
LEARNING



The capacity of the brain to change with learning is
plasticity.
So how does the brain change with learning?
According to Durbach (2000), there appear to be at least
two types of modifications that occur in the brain with
learning:
1.
2.
A change in the internal structure of the neurons, the
most notable being in the area of synapses.
An increase in the number of synapses (more
dendrites) between neurons.
Dendrite Growing/Pruning
GROWING
DENDRITES
PRUNING
DENDRITES
Dendrites
OUR JOB IS TO GROW
DENDRITES!!!!!
•Growing dendrites (size and numbers)
physically increases the weight of our
brain.
•New growth forms on neurons that are
frequently used.
•Introducing and reviewing information
to the brain in several ways creates
more dendrite pathways and synaptic
connections.
•The more they are used the stronger
they become.
•The more complex the skills required
in occupations, the more dendrites are
found on neurons.
GROWING DENDRITES
HOW AND WHEN
Actual branching of the nerve cells occurs primarily at
night during sleep or more specifically, during various
times of our sleep cycle.
Sleeping after learning grows twice as many neural dendrites
as learning the material did.
The bulk of hard wiring takes place during sleep.
Children who are sleep deprived after learning new
information are unable to process and use the information as
well as children who are not sleep deprived.
FIVE RULES OF THE BRAIN
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Dendrites grow only from what is already
there.
Dendrites grow for what is practiced.
Dendrites grow from stimulating
experiences.
Emotions affect learning.
Use it or lose it!
Dendrite Pruning
Developmental Plasticity/Synaptic
Pruning
Ineffective or weak connections are
"pruned" in much the same way a
gardener would prune a tree or bush,
giving the plant the desired shape.
 It is plasticity that enables the process of
developing and pruning connections,
allowing the brain to adapt itself to its
environment.

The orange dots represent the multiple synapses
on a single neuron.
•The extent of synaptic
interconnectivity as we age
determines our functional ability
to use our brains
•In spite of losing neurons as we
age, the density of
interconnectivity makes up for the
loss
•This depends on continuous new
learning & environmental enrichment
During Adolescence…
The density of synapses declines
during adolescence due to selective
pruning of redundant or unused
connections.
 Synapse formation continues despite
ongoing pruning

Enriched Environments

Children who are exposed to a rich and
varied education early in life develop a
great capacity for learning throughout life.

Real learning, not just rote exercise, can
have a dramatic influence on the physical
structure of the brain.
Into Adulthood…
The brain continuously remodels itselfeven into adulthood.
 Synapses (dendrite growth) continue to
be formed in the brain.
 Lifelong enrichment experiences are
important for continued dendrite
growth and healthy functioning brains.

TEACHERS ARE….
How can we help students learn more effectively and
joyfully…apply the science of teaching to the art of
teaching. For example….
3 Key Elements
1.
LESS STRESS!
2.
DO THE REAL THING!
3.
USE IT OR LOSE IT!
LESS STRESS



Stress, confusion and perceived threat
can minimize the brain’s capabilities
Create a safe and secure climate and
healthy physical environment
Promote personal relationships and
social skills
DO THE REAL THING!



Multi-sensory experiences promote brain
growth and connections
Provide enriched environments for
learning
Hook new ideas to prior understanding
and personal experiences
USE IT OR LOSE IT!
Multiple opportunities to actively process
new learning in a variety of ways assures
long term retention
 Differentiate instruction, provide choices,
vary grouping and honour multiple
intelligences
 Orchestrate opportunities to apply new
learning in real-world settings

REFLECTION
Any activity through which the brain recalls a
concept, skill, or process. Reflection
activities will prompt the brain to restimulate the new connections among
neurons, which helps strengthen them.
The Brain is ‘Pattern Seeking”
The brain seeks to make order out of
chaos.
 Use mindmap formats
 Use graphics
 Create daily agendas
 Set goals
 Review at the end of the day
The Brain Needs Adequate Time
FLOW theory is an optimal experience when people report
feelings of deep concentration and enjoyment…a state
of concentration that is so completely focused it amounts
to absolute absorption in an activity.






It occurs when we confront tasks we have a chance of completing
We must be able to concentrate on what we are doing
The task has clear goals
Immediate feedback is provided
The experience is an enjoyable one that allows us to exercise a sense of
control over our actions
The sense of time is altered: hours pass by in what seems like minutes
Executive Functions





Refers to the conscious control of what we think and do.
Get the image of a CEO in the head. An executive is someone who
decides upon a course of action, issues commands by virtue of rank
in a hierarchy, and ensures that the commands are implemented.
Executive functions include identifying problems, making decisions,
planning, staying focused on a task, adapting flexibly to changing
situations, controlling impulses, and regulating emotions and
behaviours.
Ask, “How do I identify and organize steps for completing an
independent project? Why is this information related to that? How
do I start this project/assignment? When do I self-check my
progress in order to evaluate how much I have left to do?
These questions help us manage ourselves as learners, developing
awareness of our knowledge as well as lack of knowledge, and
knowing how to accomplish various goals by using executive or
metacognitive skills.
DAVID SOUSA
http://www4.insinc.com/interactiveinnovation
s2007/davidsousa/player.html
David Sousa
“There is so much we are beginning to learn about the
brain. I firmly believe the most important person in the
equation is the classroom teacher. THE QUALITY OF
LEARNING RARELY EXCEEDS THE QUALITY OF
TEACHING. Quality is measured by the degree to which
the teacher can select those strategies that help most
kids succeed. Those decisions come essentially from
our knowledge base and if our knowledge is back in the
60’s…there’s a different student coming to our schools
today and rather than beating our chests and saying,
“My god, these kids are different” let’s find out what is the
nature of that difference. They want to interact with their
learning so lets allow that to happen. Lets understand
more about neuroscience so we can be the best brain
changers.”