1/e
Scott O. Lilienfeld
Steven Jay Lynn
Laura Namy
Nancy J. Woolf
Prepared by Jennifer Sage
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Reflect back on your childhood memories.
What was your favorite Christmas? What made it so special?
Place in your journal. (NO! I haven’t graded the other….it’s on the top of my to-do list this weekend )
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How Nurture Changes Us
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Discuss classical conditioning and how complex behaviors can arise from it
Distinguish classical from operant conditioning, and the principles of reinforcement
Explore the basis of observational and insight learning
Discuss biological influences on learning
Evaluate learning fads
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Once you reach adulthood, the brain is basically fixed and does not change.
False.
Recent evidence suggests that new neurons grow even in the adult brain, especially areas of the brain involved in learning.
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Learning change in an organism’s behavior or thought as a result of experience
Habituation - process by which we respond less strongly over time to repeated stimuli
Sensitization - process by which we respond more strongly over time (especially for dangerous, irritating stimuli)
Eric Kandel earned the Nobel prize for his studies of habituation and sensitization in Aplysia (the sea slug)
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Aplysia: A Model for Habituation and
Sensitization
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British associationists - believed that we acquire virtually all of our knowledge by connecting one stimulus with another
(e.g., mother’s face and voice)
Ivan Pavlov - studied digestion in dogs, noted associative conditioning between neutral stimuli and meat powder
(Pavlovian conditioning)
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Pavlov described classical conditioning , involving:
UCS unconditioned stimulus - biologically significant stimulus that produces automatic response
UCR unconditioned response - automatic response to a UCS that occurs without learning
CS conditioned stimulus - initially neutral stimulus, becomes associated with the UCS through conditioning
CR conditioned response - learned response
By virtue of CS-UCS pairing, the CS comes to elicit the
CR, a response closely related, but not identical, to the UR
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Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning Model
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Aversive conditioning - classical conditioning to an unpleasant UCS
Avoidance response
Classical conditioning is adaptive in preparing the organism for the impending
US
Psychopathic personalities - indifferent to signals of threat
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Acquisition - learning phase during which a CR is established
Extinction - gradual decrease and elimination of the CR when the CS is presented repeatedly without the UCS
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Spontaneous recovery - sudden reemergence of an extinguished CR after a delay
Renewal effect - tendency of an extinguished CR to return when revisiting the original conditioning environment
Phobias intense and irrational fears
Some acquired via classical conditioning
Subject to spontaneous recovery and renewal
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Stimulus generalization - elicitation of a
CR to stimuli that are highly similar to, but not identical to, the CS
Generalization gradient - the more similar to the original CS the new CS is, the stronger will be the CR
Stimulus discrimination - opposite of stimulus generalization; occurs when we exhibit a CR to certain CSs, but not others
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Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009
Higher-order conditioning - process by which organisms develop classically conditioned responses to CSs associated with the original CS
Second-order conditioning
(e.g., thirst when hear “Coke” on a hot day)
Occasion setters: setting in which CS occurs
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1) Advertising - pairing positive USs with product CSs
Latent inhibition when we’ve experienced a CS alone many times, it’s difficult to classically condition it to another stimulus
(e.g., highly known vs. novel brands)
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2) Acquisition of fears: Little Albert
Watson & Reyner (1920) sought to disprove the
Freudian view of phobia, reflecting deep-seated unconscious conflict
They recruited an infant, Albert, and paired a white rat (CS) with a loud clanging metal noise (UCS)
Five days later, Albert exhibited fear of the rat, and similar stimuli, including a rabbit, dog, furry coat, and Santa Claus mask (generalization of phobia)
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Applications of Classical Conditioning to Daily Life
Little Albert
Led to the conditioning model of phobias
Classical conditioning also offers a way to get rid of phobia
Mary Clover Jones (1924) successfully treated three-year-old Peter, who had a phobia of rabbits, by slowly introducing a rabbit paired with candies
Similar exposure therapy is still the main behavioral treatment for irrational fears
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3) Acquisition of fetishes
Fetishism - experiencing sexual attraction to nonliving things
Domjan (2004) paired a white terrycloth cylinder with a receptive female quail
After 30 trials, about half the male quail tried to mate with the cylinder alone
Suggests that pairing neutral objects with sex could lead to fetishes
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4) Disgust reactions in most cases, a product of classical conditioning because CSs associated with disgusting UCSs come to elicit disgust themselves
Rozin (1986) subjects show a great reluctance to eat a piece of fudge shaped like dog feces
Subjects show a great reluctance to drink a sucrose solution labeled poison, even when they put the meaningless label on there (“better safe than sorry” heuristic)
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McConnell (1955) gave light-shock (CS-UCS) pairings to planaria flatworms
Then fed those flatworms to other flatworms
Those that ate the shocked planaria learned faster, and McConnell became convinced he could transfer learning (but pseudoconditioning ?)
The results could not be replicated and McConnell closed his lab at University of Michigan, but had a normal career otherwise
Was targeted by the Unabomber he didn’t like the idea of memory pills to transfer ideas into people’s heads
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Or instrumental conditioning acquiring behaviors as a result of the outcome or consequence of those behaviors
The organism gets something out of the response or “operates” on its environment
(e.g., using biscuits as a treat, a trainer teaches a dog to sit)
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Response
Elicited by UCS or CS
Reward
Classical
Independent of what the animal does
Operant
Organism emits response in a seemingly voluntary fashion
Organism must make response
Body
System
Often involves autonomic nervous system
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Often involves the skeletal muscles
E. L. Thorndike (1898) studied cats in puzzle boxes, which led to the law of effect :
If a response, in the presence of a stimulus, is followed by a satisfying state of affairs, the bond between stimulus and response will be strengthened
According to Thorndike and others, learning involves an association between a stimulus and response (S-
R), with the reward stamping in this connection
• Lack of insight in cats
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Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009
Skinner developed a highly efficient conditioning chamber ( Skinner box ) that allows for conditioning and automated behavior measurement
Typically contains bar that delivers food when pressed, food dispenser, and light that signals when reward is forthcoming
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Rat in Skinner Box and Electronic Device for Recording the Rat’s Behavior
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Positive reinforcement pleasant stimulus is given to increase the probability of a response
(e.g., cell phone for good grades)
Negative reinforcement - unpleasant stimulus is removed to increase the probability of a response
(e.g., Aidan’s mother’s nagging stops when he picks up his room)
Punishment unpleasant stimulus is given, or pleasant stimulus is taken away, to decrease the probability of a response (e.g., cell phone taken away for breaking curfew)
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It tells the organism what not to do, rather than what to do
Creates anxiety that can interfere with future learning
Encourages subversive behavior
(sneakiness)
Provides a model for aggressive behavior
Physical punishment is associated with aggression in adulthood: but what about the role of genetics?
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Discriminant stimulus ( S d
) - stimulus associated with the presence of reinforcement
(e.g., whistle for dog, gets treat when approaches)
Acquisition , extinction , spontaneous recovery , stimulus generalization , and stimulus discrimination are concepts common to both classical and operant conditioning
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Partial reinforcement behaviors that we reinforce only occasionally are slower to extinguish than those we reinforce continuously
Schedules of reinforcement - pattern of reinforcing a behavior
Fixed Ratio - after regular number of responses
Variable Ratio - after specific number of responses, on average
Fixed Interval - after specific amount of time
Variable Interval - after an average time interval
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Four Major Reinforcement Schedules
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Typical Response Patterns for the Four
Reinforcement Patterns
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Shaping by successive reinforcement reinforcing behaviors that aren’t quite the target behavior but that are progressively closer versions of it
Chaining linking a number of interrelated behaviors to form a longer series
Premack principle - a less frequently performed behavior can be increased by reinforcing it with a more frequent behavior
Grandma’s rule - vegetables before dessert
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Superstitious behavior - behavior linked to reinforcement by sheer coincidence (e.g., lucky charm effect)
Pigeons, athletes, etc.
Token economies mental hospital staff can reinforce patients who behave in a desired fashion using tokens, chips, points, or other secondary reinforcers
Secondary reinforcers - neutral objects that patients can later trade in for…
Primary reinforcers items or outcomes that are naturally pleasurable, such as a favorite food or drink
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ABA - a set of techniques, pioneered by Ivar
Lovaas at UCLA, and based on operant conditioning principles, that relies on the careful measurement of behavior before and after implementing interventions
Shaping techniques with primary reinforcers
Children with autism treated with ABA show significant progress in language and intellectual skills
Before Lovaas, many of these children would have been institutionalized
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Two-Process Theory: Putting Classical and Operant Conditioning Together
Classical and operant conditioning are distinct in many ways, including underlying brain systems, but how they interact is called two-process theory
People acquire phobias via classical conditioning, then avoid their feared stimulus
(e.g., avoiding dogs after dog bite)
This avoidance produces negative reinforcement, via anxiety reduction, maintaining the phobic response
So phobias may involve classically conditioned fear AND operant avoidance
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Sarah is afraid of flying. She prides herself on not taking any pills. What are some ways she may be able to enjoy flying more?
Exposure therapy and extinction
Positive reinforcement
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Skinner was a radical behaviorist : said thinking, emotion, and observable behavior are all dictated by operant and classical conditioning; viewed cognitive psychology as a pseudoscience
Stimulus-Organism-Response (S-O-R) theorists focus on how the organism interprets the stimulus before generating a response
They contend that behavior is not automatic or inflexible, rather, classical and operant conditioned responses usually depend on thinking
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Latent learning learning that isn’t directly observable; we learn many things without showing them
Emphasizes the difference between competence (what we know) and performance (showing what we know)
Challenge to radical behaviorism, implies reinforcement isn’t necessary
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Tolman and Honzik Maze Trials:
Learning All Along…
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Observational learning - learning by watching others (models), without instruction or reinforcement
Brain basis? Perhaps mirror neurons
Aggressive behavior: Bandura (1963) had children watch an adult ignoring or punching a
Bobo doll and shouting things like “Kick him”
Children who watched the aggressive adult model were aggressive to the Bobo doll later
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Scores of investigators have proposed that violent TV programs promote aggressiveness in children
Correlation or causation?
Longitudinal designs
Laboratory experiments
Field studies (e.g., examining aggression in a town with no
TV)
From these studies - media violence contributes to aggression in some circumstances
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Longitudinal Study of Individuals Who
Watched Violent TV as Children
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A school teacher is having trouble with Audrey hitting her classmates. He notifies the father, who spanks
Audrey. The next day Audrey hits another classmate.
When an adult angrily approaches her, she cowers in fear. What happened and what should the teacher do?
Audrey demonstrated observational learning/modeling.
Audrey shows classical conditioning of fear.
The father should be taught that modeling good behavior and using reinforcement-based strategies will be more effective than punishment.
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Kohler (1925) studied apes solving problems, in one case, reaching bananas by putting together two sticks that were not long enough individually
Seemed evidence for “Aha!” phenomenon
Insight learning - when subjects suddenly
“get” the solution to a problem, and from there on get it right almost every time
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Other Forms of Learning:
Insight Learning
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Conditioned taste aversion - classical conditioning can lead us to develop avoidance reactions to the taste of food
Requires only one trial
CS-UCS delay can be 6 – 8 hours
Very specific with little stimulus generalization
Challenges the concept of equipotentiality
(e.g., don’t develop CTAs to sounds)
Belongingness suggests that certain stimuli are more likely to go with certain responses
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Conditioned Taste Aversion Paradigm
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Preparedness regarding phobias suggests that we’re evolutionarily predisposed to fear certain stimuli more than others
Monkeys are predisposed to become afraid of things such as toy snakes and alligators, but not toy flowers or rabbits
About half of dog phobics have never had direct negative experience with a dog
Classical conditioning does not account for all phobias
Tendency for animals to return to innate behaviors following repeated reinforcement: instinctive drift
Breland’s “coin washing” raccoons
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Sleep-assisted learning listening to audio tapes while you sleep
Learn Morse code quicker?
Better controlled studies suggested that the tapes awoke the subjects, they were not really asleep
Accelerated learning - SALTT
Discovery learning giving students experimental materials and asking them to figure out scientific principles on their own
Klahr (2004) - 3rd, 4th graders asked to figure out variables affecting how quickly a ball rolls down a ramp
• Only 23% learned the principles using discovery learning, but
77% did with direct instruction
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Do all individuals have their own distinctive learning styles?
Analytical or spatial or verbal learners?
Findings not reliable
Studies show tailoring learning methods to a particular style doesn’t result in enhanced learning
Most of us use a mixture of styles
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One treatment for alcoholism is a drug (pill) called Antabuse
® – it makes you very sick when you drink alcohol. Should this treatment work?
Based on the principles we’ve discussed, why or why not?
Yes, via conditioned taste aversion
No, avoidance and noncompliance
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