工学英語への近道
ESP with OCHA and PAIL
Judy Noguchi
Learning a language via ESP
(English for Specific Purposes)

Process-oriented
 OCHA
 Observe
 Classify
 Hypothesize
 Apply

Product-oriented
 PAIL
 Purpose
 Audience
 Information
 Language
features
But first, some questions





Q1 Why is English so important for science
and engineering?
Q2 Why is the language of science different
from other types of English?
Q3 What is ESP?
Q4 Why is ESP necessary?
Q5 How can ESP be efficiently and
effectively taught/learned?
Q1 Why is English so important for
science and engineering?

Need to participate in an international
dialogue
Gross (1990) The Rhetoric of Science:
"facts are by nature linguistic—
no language, no facts." [203]
Scientific “facts”
Must be recognized and acknowledged
 Should be used as part of the knowledge
system
 Should be presented in linguistically
acceptable form

Knowledge production is an “ongoing
process of coordinating action
among persons” and “language (and
other actions) gain their intelligibility in
their social use, as they are coordinated
with the actions of others” (Gergen
2001:119).
Not only the information being conveyed
but the language used to convey it is
itself an important part of the message.
Q2 Why is the language of science
different from other types of English?
Birth of a new genre
 Scientific progress in the 17th century >>
Need for a new expository genre to describe
them
 Traditional literary essays did not suit the
epistemic approach used by men of science
following the approach of Francis Bacon
Gotti (2005:171)
The language of science differs from other
types of English because
It was a new genre specifically developed
to express its activities and claims
to discuss its claims
to construct knowledge systems
based on these claims
Q3 What is ESP?

EGP = English for General Purposes


個人のための英語
ESP = English for Specific Purposes
 プロのための英語
ESP is language that “works”
EAP English for academic purposes
An ESP program for students of law
EOP English for occupational purposes
An ESP program for international medical
graduates
EVP English for vocational purposes
An ESP program for union members in 25
factories
Orr, Thomas (ed) 2002 English for specific purposes. Alexandria: TESOL
Language is composed of patterns
言語はパターンで構成されている

Sound patterns form words




Collocation

Grammar

Text structure

Genre structure
句や節のパターンが文章となる
Sentence patterns form texts



単語のパターンが句や節となる
Phrase and clause patterns form
sentences

Pronunciation &
prosody
音のパターンが単語となる
Word patterns form phrases and
clauses


文章パターンがテキストとなる
Text patterns form genres

テキストのパターンがジャンルとな
る
“’Genre’ is a recognizable communicative
event characterized by
a set of communicative purpose(s) identified
and mutually understood by
the members of the professional or academic
community in which it regularly occurs.”
Swales’ definition (1981, 1985, 1990a)
summarized by Bhatia
in Analysing Genres (1993:13)
Q4 Why is ESP (genre) necessary?



Information explosion
 The amount of information produced in the world
increases by 30% every year.
Going back in time
 A weekly edition of the New York Times contains more
information than the average person was likely to
come across in a lifetime in seventeenth-century
England. (Wurman 1989, 32)
Overload psychology
 Only 18% of the stories in an average newspaper are
read in full. (Graber 1988, 249)
How to deal with the overload



Attention arousal: noticing what you are
interested in
Selective attention: ignoring what is not
needed
Schematic thinking: using knowledge
structures and frameworks to organize
information
Q5 How ESP be taught/learned?
Look at the patterns of genre texts!
Action
Substance
Form
What is Action?
Action
Substance
Form
Action of a genre text

What is the text trying to do?




Make a claim based on research
Present a convincing argument about something
Appeal for funds
Promote a product
What is Substance?
Action
Substance
Form
Content of a genre text

What is the message of the text?



Description of a newly developed method
Presentation of a new discovery
Explanation of a mechanism
What is Form?
Action
Substance
Form
Form of a genre text

What are the features of the text?


Mode: spoken or written
PAIL




Purpose
Audience
Information
Language features
Effect on the discourse community
Even native
speakers of
the
language
need to
learn genre
awareness!
Action
Substance
Information for the
discourse community
Form
Linguistic packaging
for genre recognition
Write Like a Chemist

An essential guide to perfect
your abilities to write journal
articles, conference abstracts,
scientific posters, and research
proposals, so that you can reach
your professional audience more
effectively.

http://www.oup.com/us/compani
on.websites/9780195305074/?vi
ew=usa
Plant Physiology 2010
Instructions for Authors
Last updated February 25, 2010
http://www.plantphysiol.org/misc/ifora.shtml
 Peer Review section
 A manuscript that contains excellent science
but otherwise requires extensive revision will,
as a matter of policy, be declined.
Using OCHA to master the form

Observe features of a text




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Rhetorical
Grammatical
Lexical
Technical
Phonological
Genre analysis: Two texts, same topic, two genres

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

Eyes lock on different
letters when reading
YORK (Reuters) - When we
read our eyes lock on to

different letters in the
same word instead of
scanning a page smoothly
from left to right as
previously thought,
researchers said on
Monday.
Using sophisticated eye
tracking equipment, the
team looked at letters
within a word and found
that people combined
parts of a word that were
on average two letters
apart, said Simon
Liversedge, a cognitive
psychologist at the
University of Southampton.
Lexical and Sublexical Influences on Eye
Movements During Reading
Simon P. Liversedge and Hazel I. Blythe, University of
Southampton (March 2007)
In this paper, we briefly review some
recent studies that have clearly
demonstrated the importance of lexical
factors on eye movements during reading.
We introduce the reader to eye-movement
recording and explain its importance
within the field of experimental
psychology as a tool with which we can
examine the psychological processes
underlying reading. We then provide a
summary of (mainly) eye-movement
experiments in three areas: reading
disappearing text, reading text with
transposed letters, and morphological
processing of compound words.
Throughout the paper our central claim is
that processes associated with lexical
identification exert a strong and quite
immediate effect on eye-movement
behaviour during reading.
Eyes lock on different letters when reading

YORK (Reuters) - When we read our eyes
lock on to different letters in the same
word instead of scanning a page
smoothly from left to right as previously
thought, researchers said on Monday.






Using sophisticated eye tracking
equipment, the team looked at letters
within a word and found that people
combined parts of a word that were on
average two letters apart, said Simon
Liversedge, a cognitive psychologist at
the University of Southampton.


News agency
“Hook”
Who?
What?
When?
Where?
How?
Cognitive Science of Language
Lexical and Sublexical Influences on Eye Movements During
Reading
Simon P. Liversedge and Hazel I. Blythe, University of Southampton
(March 2007)

In this paper, we briefly review some recent studies that have
clearly demonstrated the importance of lexical factors on eye
movements during reading. We introduce the reader to eyemovement recording and explain its importance within the
field of experimental psychology as a tool with which we can
examine the psychological processes underlying reading. We
then provide a summary of (mainly) eye-movement
experiments in three areas: reading disappearing text, reading
text with transposed letters, and morphological processing of
compound words. Throughout the paper our central claim is
that processes associated with lexical identification exert a
strong and quite immediate effect on eye-movement
behaviour during reading.
Cognitive Science of Language
Lexical and Sublexical Influences on Eye Movements During
Reading (March 2007) Simon P. Liversedge and Hazel I. Blythe,
University of Southampton

In this paper, we briefly review some recent
studies that have clearly demonstrated the
importance of lexical factors on eye movements
during reading. We introduce the reader to eyemovement recording and explain its importance
within the field of experimental psychology as a
tool with which we can examine the
psychological processes underlying reading. We
then provide a summary of (mainly) eyemovement experiments in three areas: reading
disappearing text, reading text with transposed
letters, and morphological processing of compound
words. Throughout the paper our central claim
is that processes associated with lexical
identification exert a strong and quite immediate
effect on eye-movement behaviour during reading.

Background
& purpose

Materials &
methods
Results and
conclusion

Collocations


Lexical bundles (Cortes 2004, Biber and Barbieri
2007, Hyland 2007)
Hint words/expressions
Need to be taught
Dressen-Hammouda (2008): “genre-based courses
should also include instruction about both the target
discipline's specialist knowledge frames as well as
the implicit cues that help readers and writers
reconstruct them.”
Can help prevent patchwriting
Hyland (2008)
As can be seen: Lexical bundles and
disciplinary variation Ken Hyland (2008)
An important component of fluent linguistic production is control of
the multi-word expressions referred to as clusters, chunks or bundles.
These are extended collocations which appear more frequently than
expected by chance, helping to shape meanings in specific contexts
and contributing to our sense of coherence in a text. Bundles have
begun to attract considerable attention in corpus studies in EAP,
although the extent to which they differ by discipline remains an
open question. This paper explores the forms, structures and
functions of 4-word bundles in a 3.5 million word corpus of research
articles, doctoral dissertations and Master’s theses in four disciplines
to learn something of disciplinary variations in their frequencies and
preferred uses. The analysis shows that bundles are not only
central to the creation of academic discourse, but that they offer an
important means of differentiating written texts by discipline.
As can be seen: Lexical bundles and
disciplinary variation Ken Hyland
An important component of fluent linguistic production
is control of the multi-word expressions referred to as
clusters, chunks or bundles. These are extended
collocations which appear more frequently than
expected by chance, helping to shape meanings in
specific contexts and contributing to our sense of
coherence in a text. Bundles have begun to attract
considerable attention in corpus studies in EAP,
although the extent to which they differ by discipline
remains an open question. This paper explores the
forms, structures and functions of 4-word bundles in a
3.5 million word corpus of research articles, doctoral
dissertations and Master’s theses in four disciplines to
learn something of disciplinary variations in their
frequencies and preferred uses. The analysis shows
that bundles are not only central to the creation of
academic discourse, but that they offer an important
means of differentiating written texts by discipline.
Background
(Importance)
(Gap in
knowledge)
Aim of study
& methods
Results
Conclusion
Google Scholar search April 3, 2010
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An important component of 約296,000件
attract considerable attention 約3,210件
remains an open question 約90,400件
This paper explores
約83,300件
The analysis shows that
約45,600件
an important means of
約38,800件
Learning a language via ESP
(English for Specific Purposes)

Process-oriented
 OCHA
 Observe
 Classify
 Hypothesize
 Apply

Product-oriented
 PAIL
 Purpose
 Audience
 Information
 Language
features
ESP for realistic, attainable targets
Halliday, MacIntosh and Strevens (1964):
Rather than aiming for
perfection of the “whole language,”
which is an “impossible” task,
it would be more realistic
to set attainable targets
for specific functions of the language
that are needed for specific tasks.
Mastering the ESP you need with OCHA and PAIL
References
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Bhatia, V. K. (1993). Analysing genre: Language use in
professional settings. London and New York: Longman.
Biber, D. and Barbieri, F. (2007) Lexical bundles in
university spoken and written registers. English for
Specific Purposes 26(3)263-286.
Cortes, V. (2006).Teaching lexical bundles in the
disciplines: An example from a writing intensive history
class. Linguistics and Education 17(4) 391-406.
Hyland, K. (2008) As can be seen: Lexical bundles and
disciplinary variation. English for Specific Purposes
27(1)4-21.
Halliday, M. A. K. , MacIntosh, A.,Strevens, P. (1964)
The Linguistic Sciences and Language Teaching.
London: Longman.




Noguchi, J. (2006). The science review article: An
opportune genre in the construction of science. Bern:
Peter Lang.
Robinson, M., Stoller, F., Constanza-Robinson, M.,
Jones, J. K. (2008) Write Like a Chemist. New York:
Oxford University Press.
Swales, J. M. (1990). Genre analysis: English in
academic and research settings. Cambridge, UK:
Cambridge University Press.
Swales, J. M. (2004) Research genres: Explorations and
applications. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.