Cross-linguistic influence (CLI) and
transfer of learning
Mark Andrew James
Arizona State University
[I]t is natural to wonder about the relation between
language transfer [i.e., CLI] and transfer of learning in
other contexts.
Odlin 2003: 477
Overview
• CLI and learning transfer appear, on the surface,
to be similar constructs.
• In research literature dealing with CLI, there are
few constructive links to learning transfer
research and theory.
• CLI research and theory might benefit from
stronger connections to learning transfer
research and theory.
Definitions
• CLI (or language transfer)
– the influence that knowledge of one language
has on an individual’s learning or use of
another language (Gass & Selinker 1992;
Jarvis & Pavlenko 2008).
• Learning transfer
– the influence that prior learning has on
subsequent learning or performance (Perkins
& Salomon 1994).
Links to learning transfer
in CLI literature
• Evolution of CLI research from learning transfer research
(e.g., Major 2008; Selinker 1969);
• Learning transfer theory as basis for teaching for CLI
(Politzer 1965; Rivers 1964);
• Learning transfer theory (e.g., vertical vs. lateral) as
relevant to CLI (Odlin 2003; Olivares 2002);
• Definitions of learning transfer in discussions of CLI
(Arabski 2006; Sajavaara 1986);
• Learning transfer research as relevant to ambiguity of the
term “transfer” (Dechert 2006).
Factors that influence CLI and
learning transfer
1.
2.
3.
4.
Perceptions of (cross-linguistic) similarity.
Language proficiency / knowledge base.
Motivation / disposition.
Interlocutor characteristics / socio-cultural
context.
5. Automaticity / amount and type of practice.
Divergence of CLI research/theory
from learning transfer
• SLA scholars became uncomfortable drawing on
learning transfer research/theory because of its
association with behavioral psychology.
[I]t is exceedingly difficult to apply these findings to the
foreign language learning situation because the
experimental materials, the degrees of original
learning, and other variables are quite different from
those occurring in foreign language learning.
Carroll, 1968, p.120
1. Is learning transfer research/theory
associated with behavioral psychology?
• While a behavioral psychology perspective was
common in early research/theory on learning
transfer, other perspectives have been taken:
– gestalt psychology;
– cognitive psychology;
– socio-cultural psychology.
2. Are the behaviors studied in learning
transfer research unrelated to language?
•
•
•
•
•
•
knowledge of vocabulary (Ganea et al 2008);
knowledge of grammar (Ninio 2005);
pronunciation (Nation et al 2001);
listening perception (Peele & Wingfield 2005);
phonological awareness (Benson 2000);
reading skills and strategies (Aulls 2003; Compton et al
2005; Gromko 2004; Martin-Chang et al 2007; Williams et
al 2005);
• writing skills and strategies (Aulls 2003; Berninger et al
2006; Glaser & Brunstein 2007; James 2009).
3. Do CLI and learning transfer research
differ in terms of depth of learning?
• Current definitions of CLI tend to be broad and
include not only the influence of a L1 on the
learning/use of a L2, but also the influence of a
L2 on the learning/use of a L3 (or L4, etc.), as
well as the influence of a L2 on L1 use.
– … this means the source of CLI may not be a
deeply-learned L1 system; it may instead be a
less deeply-learned L2 system.
Implications
Learning transfer research/theory may …
(a) help answer questions raised about CLI.
• How does an individual recognize crosslinguistic
similarity?
(b) point to questions potentially relevant to CLI.
• How might similarity in genre between texts used in
L1 situations and texts used in L2 situations
influence CLI?
• How might motivation influence CLI?
• How might sociocultural context influence CLI?
Conclusion
• There is a deep relationship between CLI and
learning transfer.
– … overlap can be seen conceptually and in existing
research and theory.
• So, research/theory on CLI might benefit from
connections to research/theory on learning
transfer.
References (1 of 4)
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Arabski, Janusz (2006). Language transfer in language learning and language contact.
In Cross-linguistic influences in the second language lexicon, Janusz Arabski (ed.), 1221. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.
Aulls, Mark W. (2003). The influence of a reading and writing curriculum on transfer
learning across subjects and grades. Reading Psychology, 24: 177-215.
Benson, Nancy J. (2000). Analysis of specific deficits: Evidence of transfer in disabled
and normal readers following oral-motor awareness training. Journal of Educational
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Berninger, Virginia W., Judith E. Rutberg, Robert D. Abbott, Noelia Garcia, Marci
Anderson-Youngstrom, Allison Brooks, and Cynthia Fulton (2006). Tier 1 and tier 2
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Compton, Donald L., Natalie G. Olinghouse, Amy Elleman, Jan Vining, Amanda C.
Appleton, Jennifer Vail, and Marci Summers (2005). Putting transfer back on trial:
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Dechert, Hans W. (2006). On the ambiguity of the notion ‘transfer’. In Cross-linguistic
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Jarvis, Scott and Aneta Pavlenko. (2008). Crosslinguistic influence in language and
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