Two Models of Discrete Trial
Teaching Used with Children
with Autism
a. Lovaas Model (utilizing the UCLA curriculum)
b. Errorless Teaching (utilizing the ABLLS as
curriculum)
The Discrete Trial
(a three-term contingency)
D
S
R
S
R
(Discriminative Stimulus)
(Response)
(Reinforcing Stimulus)
(a four-term contingency)
D
EO/S
(Establishing Operation/Discriminative Stimulus)
R
(Response)
R
S
(Reinforcing Stimulus)
Definitions
1.
SD (Discriminative Stimulus): An environmental
cue or instruction that signals that reinforcement is
available for a target behavior.
2. R (Response) : The behavior the child exhibits
immediately following the presentation of the SD.
3. SR (Reinforcing Stimulus) : The consequence
following the child’s response that changes the
likelihood with which the behavior will reoccur.
Consecutive Trials Using the
Three-Term Contingency
SD
R
SR
ITI
SD
R
SR
ITI
SD
R
SR
- This sequence is adhered to most often at the early stages of teaching
regardless of the model of treatment that is being utilized.
Definitions
4.
ITI (Inter-trial Interval)
- The time between the end of the consumption of the
reinforcer or administration of the punisher (“NO”) and
the presentation of the next SD.
- When thinning the reinforcement schedule, the ITI is the
time between the end of one response and the
presentation of the next SD.
- Depending on the model of treatment, the ITI will be from
less than one second up to three seconds.
Consecutive Trials Using the
Three-Term Contingency
SD
R
ITI
SD
R
SD
R
ITI
SD
R
ITI
SD
R
ITI
SD
R
ITI
SD
R
ITI
SR
ITI
This sequence can be employed when thinning the reinforcement schedule or increasing
the pace of instruction regardless of the model of treatment. This sequence is also
employed when presenting SDs in a “mixed and varied format” or when stimuli are
presented in “random rotation.”
Definitions
5. Mixing and Varying (errorless)/Random Rotation (Lovaas) :
The random presentation of any mastered response from
any program with any current target response from any
program.
6. Program : A skill or concept that is being taught (e.g.,
Expressive Picture Labels or Pronouns or Prepositions are
all programs).
7. Mastered Response : A response that was taught within a
program.
8. Field: The top of the table where stimuli are placed.
Definitions
9. Current Target : A response that is currently being taught
within a program (e.g., “cup”, “my shirt”, “on top”)
10. Prompt : Assistance provided by the adult in order to
increase the likelihood that the child will be successful at
completing the response. The prompt should be
delivered immediately following the SD.
(e.g., SD(prompt)
R
SR)
11. Stimulus : An item or event in the environment that can
be detected by the senses (pl. stimuli).
Definitions
12. Discrimination Training: The procedure that
teaches children to be able to distinguish one
item (or other response) from another.
13. Extinction: The process in which behavior that
has been previously reinforced is or longer
reinforced, therefore the frequency of the
behavior decreases.
When to use “No”
1. In the UCLA model it is recommended that an
“informational No” or extinction is employed when a
child responds incorrectly.
2. Using two consecutive “No”s prior to delivering a
prompt should be primarily confined to points in the
discrimination training procedure when the child will
be offered opportunities to change and adapt
his/her behavior in response to corrective feedback
(i.e., the absence of reinforcement). In other
words, we are saying to the child, “try again.”
When to use “No”
3. During the teaching of new responses, the correct
procedure to employ following an incorrect response
(according to the UCLA model) is to employ the least
intrusive prompt that will facilitate the response. The
goal at the early stages of discrimination training is to
introduce the item and make the child successful not
to teach them to adapt to corrective feedback.
4. There is not a procedure called the “no-no prompt” in
the UCLA model this evolved due to a somewhat
altered understanding of the correct manner in which
this kind of feedback would be employed.
Advantages of Using “No” as
Corrective Feedback
1. Teaches the child to adapt and change his or her
behavior in response to the absence of
reinforcement. In other words, it offers the
child an opportunity to “try something
different.”
2. The ability to adapt and change your behavior in
response to the absence of reinforcement is a
skill required in incidental learning situations
(i.e., “real life”).
3. “No” is a naturally occurring consequence in
every person’s life.
Using “No” Correctly
Example of Using “No” with the Current Target in Random
Rotation
1.
SD1-------correct---------reinforce
2.
SD2-------correct-------- reinforce
3.
SD1-------correct----------reinforce (switch positions)
4.
SD2--------correct----------reinforce (switch positions)
5.
SD3--------correct----------reinforce (switch positions)
6.
SD3--------correct----------reinforce
7.
SD1--------correct-----------reinforce
8.
SD2----incorrect------- “No”
9.
SD2---------incorrect------------- “No”
10. SD2 (prompt)------correct------reinforce (switch position)
11. SD2---------correct-------------reinforce
12. SD3---------correct----------- reinforce
13. SD2---------correct-------------reinforce (switch position)
14. SD3---------correct-------------reinforce (switch position)
15. SD2---------correct-------------reinforce
SD1: “Touch toothbrush”
SD2: “Touch shoe”
SD3: “Touch cup”
Advantages of Using “No” as
Corrective Feedback
4. Teaches children to avoid negative
consequences.
5. Strong contrast between when response
is incorrect vs. correct may make social
praise more reinforcing.
6. May reduce dependency on prompts.
Disadvantages of Using “No” as
Corrective Feedback
1. Child may demonstrate problem behavior in response to
its presentation.
2. Child may have a period of responding incorrectly “on
purpose” in order to hear “No.”
(NOTE: This same kind of behavior may be demonstrated
by typically developing children when they do or say
things incorrectly in order to get a “reaction” from their
parent, teachers etc. so is it REALLY a disadvantage?)
3. Therapists may default to employing “No” too often
which may result in problem behavior due to excessive
failure.
Definitions
14. Stimulus Control: Some specific
behavior is more likely to occur in the
presence of some specific SD. For
example: Tell a child to “touch the cup”
and then prompt him by pointing to the
cup. The child then touches the cup. The
SD that is most likely controlling the child’s
response is the instructor’s point and not
the verbal instruction, “touch the cup.”
Definitions
15. Transfer Trial: The first trial is prompted
followed by a second unprompted trial. For
example, if the child is told to “touch the cup”
and then the instructor points to the cup, the
child’s response is under stimulus control of the
instructor’s point. If immediately following the
prompted trial the instructor tells the child to
“touch the cup” and the child responds correctly
the instructor has shifted stimulus control from
the point to the verbal instruction.
Using “Near-errorless” Teaching Procedures
INITIAL PRESENTATION OF STIMULUS
Stimulus 1 (“0” sec DELAY PROMPT)----------Correct Response -------------SR
TRANSFER TRIAL
Stimulus 1 (“2” sec DELAY)---------------Correct Response---------SR
(~1-3 interceding trials consisting of mastered responses)
Stimulus 1 (“2” sec DELAY)---------------Correct Response-------------SR
(Future Presentations of the stimulus will be presented with a “2” second delay)
These teaching procedures have been taken from Dr. Vincent J. Carbone's Introduction to Verbal Behavior #1 workshop
handout from March 2004.
Using “Near-errorless” Teaching Procedures
Example:
1.
Instructor says, “Touch the shoe” and then prompts the child to touch the shoe.
2.
Instructor switches the position of the item in the field and repeats, “Touch the
shoe”
3.
The child touches the shoe without prompting from the instructor.
4.
The instructor says, “Clap your hands” (mastered response). As the child
responds, the instructor switches the position of the item in the field.
5.
Child responds appropriately.
6.
The instructor says, “What am I doing?” as she knocks on the table (mastered
response)
7.
The child responds, “knocking”
8.
The instructor says, “Do this.” and touches her nose (mastered response)
9.
The child imitates the instructor’s action.
10.
The instructor says, “Touch the shoe.”
11.
The child touches the shoe without prompting from the instructor.
Using “Near-errorless” Teaching Procedures:
Correction Procedure
Stimulus 1 (“0” sec DELAY – PROMPT)------------------Correct Response --------------- SR
TRANSFER TRIAL
Stimulus 1 (“2” sec DELAY)------------Incorrect or NO Response
CORRECTION TRIAL
Re-Present Stimulus 1 (“0” sec DELAY)------------------Correct Response------------------SR
TRANSFER TRIAL
Stimulus 1 (“2” sec DELAY) ---------------------Correct Response---------------------------SR
(If learner is incorrect again on the transfer trial, return to “0” second delay to achieve correct response and
move on, BUT ASK YOURSELF, Why is the transfer not occurring?)
SEVERAL RESPONSES LATER
Stimulus 1 (“0” sec DELAY – [Phoneme/Mimetic Prompt])-----Correct Response---------------SR
TRANSFER TRIAL
Stimulus 1 (“2” sec DELAY) -----------------Correct Response----------------------------SR
These teaching procedures have been taken from Dr. Vincent J. Carbone's Introduction to Verbal Behavior #1 workshop handout from March 2004.
Advantages of Errorless Teaching
1. Reduces learner errors through teaching methods that
insure high levels of correct responding.
2. Using of transfer trials and intermixing of easy and
difficult demands may have a positive effect on the
child’s motivation to continue responding and reduce
the motivation to escape.
3. Fast paced instruction may have a positive effect on the
child’s motivation to continue responding and reduce
the motivation to escape.
Disadvantages of
Errorless Teaching
1. If not employed correctly, child may become
prompt dependent.
2. Does not offer the child an opportunity to
respond to corrective feedback.
3. Typical learning environments do not offer fast
paced instruction therefore programming for
more natural learning contingencies is a
necessity that may easily be overlooked.
Definitions
16. Mastery Criteria: Criteria that is established to determine if a specific response or
set of responses has been learned. Typically with Trial-by-Trial data mastery
criteria may be set at 90-100% independent/correct responding across three
consecutive sessions or teachers or days. When using Probe Data, a response
or set of responses may have been learned by the child once he/she has scored
three consecutive “Y”s.
17. Percent Correct Graph: This graph should be completed at the end of each
session. Each instructor should calculate the percent of correct responding in
each program and plot a point on the graph.
18. Cumulative Graph: The total number of responses mastered each week will be
graphed at the end of each week. Each consecutive week the total acquired for
the week is added to the previous weeks number. This kind of graph can be
used if you are colleting probe data or trial by trial data.
(For example, is week one a child may master 3 responses, therefore a point would
be plotted on the graph at 3. During week two the child masters 5 more
responses, the next point on the graph would therefore be 8.)
Discrimination Learning
This procedure is used to teach the child to
discriminate between the first two items
within a program.
The procedure outlined is for programs
involving the use of stimuli.
Slight modifications will need to be made for those
programs not involving stimuli.
Discrimination Learning
Step A: Choose Targets which are maximally discriminable in:
Physical appearance (e.g., a block and car).
Sound (e.g., “cup” vs. “dinosaur”).
Function (e.g., a ball and truck vs. a shoe and sock).
For targets that do not involve the use of stimuli – different response topography
(e.g., hands vs. feet).
Discrimination Learning
Step B: Mass Trial Target Item #1
Repeatedly present target item #1 with prompts.
Gradually and systematically fade the prompts.
Place the item in different locations around the table between trials.
For programs involving the use of stimuli: Once the child is responding to
target item #1 at 80% or greater accuracy, introduce a distracter object.
The object should be neutral (i.e., holds little to no value to the child). For
example, a block or napkin could be used; the label should be unknown to
the child. Rotate the position of the objects on the table between trials.
Introduce between 1-3 distracters.
Once the child is correctly responding to target item #1 at 80% or greater
accuracy (with distracters), introduce target item #2.
Discrimination Learning
Step C: Mass Trial Target Item #2
Repeatedly present target item #2 with prompts.
Gradually and systematically fade prompts.
Place the item in different locations around the table between trials.
For programs involving the use of stimuli: Once the child is responding to target item
#2 at 80% or greater accuracy, introduce a distracter object. The object should be
neutral (i.e., holds little to no value to the child). For example, a block or napkin
could be used; the label should be unknown to the child. Rotate the position of the
objects on the table between trials. Introduce between 1-3 distracters.
Once the child is correctly responding to target item #1 at 80% or greater accuracy
(with distracters), move to Step D.
Discrimination Learning
Step D: Mass Trial item #2 in the presence of #1
Repeatedly present item #2 with item #1 also on
the table.
Rotate the position of the objects on the table
between trials.
Continue to ask only for target item # 2. Once
80% or greater accuracy is achieved move to
Step E.
Discrimination Learning
Step E: Mass Trial item #1 in the presence of #2
Repeatedly present item #1 with item #2 also on the
table.
Rotate the position of the objects on the table between
trials.
Continue to ask only for target item #1. Once 80% or
greater accuracy is achieved move to Step F.
Discrimination Learning
Step F: Block Trials (moving toward random rotation)
Begin with either target item #1 or target item #2 and present each
in blocks of trials as outlined below.
Present a block of trials of target item #1 in the presence of target
item #2 for approximately 6 trials (make sure at least the last 2 trials
are independent correct responses before going to the next step).
Give the child a break (i.e., a short play break).
Present a block of trials of target item #2 in the presence of target
item #1 for approximately 6 trials. Prompt the correct response on
the “switch trial” (i.e., when switching from one target to the other).
Discrimination Learning
Over time, as the child demonstrates consistency:
Decrease the number of trials per block.
Decrease the length of the break until you are conducting both
blocks within the same sitting.
Fade the level of prompting on the switch trial.
Discrimination Learning
Step G: Random Rotation
Randomly present the SD for target item #1 and target item
#2 (i.e., free from pattern as if flipping a coin repeatedly).
Rotate the position of the items on the table between trials.
Both items are considered mastered once the child responds
correctly to at least 80% of the trials in random rotation.
Expanded Trials
What is that?
Expanded Trials
Why, it’s the systematic increasing of the number of distracters
between the presentations of the target response in order to
increase the child’s memory for the target response…silly!
Expanded Trials
· This procedure is used to promote retention of information across
time by systematically increasing the length of time across which
the child must retain the information.
· It is particularly helpful if a child is not able to move past block
trials or has difficulty learning to discriminate between items.
· This procedure may also be used if the child has difficulty
retaining newly acquired items across sessions or days when
placed in random rotation.
Expanded Trials
Program: Receptive Instructions
New Target: “clap”
Step 1: Present the target response. Prompt as needed so
the child experiences immediate success.
Step 2: Fade prompts until the child is responding
independently.
Step 3: Begin Expanded Trials.
Expanded Trials
Here is an abbreviated example of how expanded trials may look over several sittings:
Target item: “Clap”
Sitting 1
Sitting 2
Sitting 3
“Clap”
“Wave”
“Clap”
“Jump”
“Clap”
“Kick”
“Clap”
“Jump”
“Point”
“Clap”
“Clap”
“Stomp”
“Knock”
“Clap”
“Kick”
“Stand-up”
“Point”
“Clap”
“Clap”
“Stand-up”
“Kick”
“Wave”
“Clap”
“Knock”
“Point”
“kick”
“wave”
“Clap”
Expanded Trials
Guidelines
1. If the child responds incorrectly to one of the distracter responses, do not
begin prompting this response. Instead, continue with the expansion of
the target response. Review the incorrect response later during the
session.
2. If the target response is incorrect at any point during expansion, return to
the previous level of success (i.e., number of distracters where the child
experienced success).
3. Work to extend the procedure across the day, working with time intervals
rather than the number of interceding trials.
Collapsing Trials
Q: What is that?
A: A procedure that can be employed when
a child is demonstrating consistent
discrimination errors between two or more
target responses.
Collapsing Trials
1. Follows same rules as Expanded Trials regarding distracter trials.
2. Here is an abbreviated example of how Collapsing Trials may look over several sittings:
Discrimination Error in Receptive Object Labeling: “fork” vs. “spoon”
Sitting 1
Sitting 2
“touch Fork”
“touch spoon”
“touch car”
“Stomp feet”
“what’s your name?” “a dog is an ....”
“Jump”
“Clap”
“Clap”
“Do this…”
“This is ….”
“give me the fork”
“Spoon”
Sitting 3
“give me the spoon”
“Stand-up”
“touch head”
“a cup is for…”
“touch the fork.”
Sitting 4
“find the fork”
“do this…”
“touch airplane”
“find the spoon”
etc.
3. Continue reducing the number of distracter trials until the two targets are back to back.
4. When there are discrimination errors, it is highly recommended that you collect trial by trial data.
5. Have a separate section in the logbook for discrimination errors. Do not let discrimination errors hold up the rest
of the program.
Generalization
Stimulus Generalization
Definition: The extent to which a behavior taught in one situation is
subsequently performed in another situation.
a. Across People - the child’s ability to respond to people other than
those involved in original teaching.
b. Across Environments - the child’s ability to respond in different
locations other than the “table and chair”
(e.g., sitting on the couch, on the floor, at school etc).
c. Across SDs - the child’s ability to respond to different SDs
(e.g., “sit here,” “sit down,” “have a seat”).
d. Across Stimuli - the child’s ability to respond to different examples of
the stimulus used in teaching.
Generalization
Response Generalization
Definition: The extent to which, by teaching one
behavior, you see changes in other behaviors
although these other behaviors were not
explicitly taught (e.g., you teach a child to put
away toys to the SD “clean up” and the child
also begins to throw away garbage and put
books away on the shelf).
Generalization
Maintenance
Definition: The extent to which behaviors are maintained
across time (e.g., a behavior is taught at time 1, and the
child maintains the behavior at times 2, 3, and 4).
R
R
R
I-----------------I--------I--------------------I
T1
T2
T3
R
T4
Generalization
General Techniques for Promoting Generalization
Vary stimulus conditions over time.
a. Have multiple teachers and styles.
b. Vary the stimuli.
c. Vary the wording of instructions and
questions.
d. Vary the teaching environment.
Generalization
General Techniques for Promoting Generalization
e. Make antecedents (SDs) natural.
f. Making reinforcers natural.
g. Make trials less discrete and more
similar to typical interactions.
h. Do "incidental" teaching.
i. Build retention of information into your
teaching procedures.
Data Collection
Trial-by-Trial
1. This form of data collection requires every single response to
be scored while the child and instructor are working. Data
collection would occur during the inter-trial interval.
2. May provide the information needed to determine if a child is
demonstrating consistent discrimination errors between two
or more items. Most efficient way to determine if
discrimination errors are being remediated.
3. Data calculated as a percent correct at the end of every session
and then graphed.
4. May be more sensitive to more subtle increases or decreases in
correct responding, incorrect responding and nonresponding.
Data Collection
Trial-by-Trial
5.
Trial-by-trial data can be employed as an excellent
training tool for new instructors; these data would
allow the new instructor as well as their supervisor to
review the instructor’s teaching procedures.
6.
Can be compared to video tapes of a child’s therapy
session for measure of reliability.
7.
Can accurately track the rate of acquisition from day to
day.
Data Collection
Trial-by-Trial
8. Supervisor’s know exactly how many trials per
response or program are practiced over time.
9. May be time consuming if instructor is not
fluent at collecting these data and
therefore may interfere with the pace of
instruction.
Data Collection
Probe Data
1. Data collected one time per day. Typically at the beginning of the first session of the
day prior to teaching.
2. When collecting probe data allow three seconds for vocal responses and longer for
complex motor or scanning responses.
3. If the response is correct (i.e., occurs within the allotted time) score a “Y” for “yes.”
4. If the response does not occur within the allotted time or the response is incorrect
employ the correction procedure and score the response with an “N” for “No.”
5. Graph the total acquired at the end of each week on a “cumulative graph.”
6. Does not provide information regarding specific discrimination errors that may occur.
7. Is not sensitive to subtle changes in the child’s responding.
Definitions
19. Graph: Visual tool used to display data.
20. Line Graph: Most commonly used when
displaying data from a program.
21. X-axis: The line on the bottom of the
graph (i.e., horizontal axis).
Definitions
22. Y- axis: The line on the side of the graph
(i.e., vertical axis).
23. Phase/Condition Change Lines: Vertical
lines are noted when there are changes in
program, target, baseline, intervention etc.
24. Phase/Condition Labels: Written along
the top of the graph, these note the
current phase.
Benefits of Graphing Data
1. All of the data from one program or from one intervention are all in
one place and easily accessible.
2. This allows the team to determine if a response has been mastered
without having to look through weeks of raw data (i.e., data
sheets).
3. In the case of behavior reduction procedures, it allows the team to
know if the intervention is “working.”
4. Displaying the data allows all team members to have a better
understanding of how the child is progressing within each
program, this may prove to motivate the team to generate new
and fresh ideas when the child is not progressing quickly. If the
child is progressing rapidly, the display of such progress can
prove to be reinforcing to the child’s team.
Benefits of Graphing Data
5. Allows measurement of rate of progress across programs which in turn
provides the answers to such questions as “How many more days
should we be on this target prior to dropping it?”
6. You can show the different dimensions of behavior including, frequency,
intensity, duration and latency.
7. Overall, let’s everyone know if the child is making any progress as a result
of the intervention.
8. The child’s progress performance and achievement may be higher when
graphs are used to interpret progress.
9. Maximizes instructional effectiveness if the graphs are frequently
monitored.
Definitions
25. Accuracy: Typically measured by the
percent correct. These data let the team
know that the child can perform a task.
26. Fluency: How rapidly a child can perform
a task.
27. Rate: How rapidly a child can perform a
task within a given period of time.
Types of Decisions to Make
When Interpreting Data
1. Make No Change.
The child is progressing well and as expected, there is no
need to change. Be sure to continue to frequently monitor
the graphs even if the child is doing well.
2. Change the goal.
- The child is not progressing as expected and it is apparent
that the current target or program is not appropriate.
Discontinue the program and reintroduce at a later date
once prerequisites have been met or discontinue the
current target and select a new target.
Types of Decisions to Make
When Interpreting Data
3. Slice Back.
- This means that the team should teach an easier version of the same skill
prior to reintroducing the current version. For example, if the current target
is imitation of two step actions and the child is not progressing well, it may
prove beneficial for the team to have the child practice two step actions on
objects. The object may make the task more salient for the child and the
current skill of imitating two step actions is still being targeted.
4. Step Back:
- Be sure prerequisites are met. For example, if the child has been
practicing two step actions in an imitation program and is not progressing, it
may prove beneficial to discontinue the two step actions and be sure that
the child has mastered and generalized the ability to imitate any single
action.
Types of Decisions to Make
When Interpreting Data
5. Try a Different Instructional Procedure
- The team may be confident that a current skill or
target is appropriate and yet there is not progress.
The team should then work on finding an effective
prompting procedure or different stimuli or teaching
procedure or they may need to develop a prompt
hierarchy for the team to follow.
- Prior to making these kinds of adjustments the first
thing to check is if the current procedure is being
implemented correctly and consistently across
instructors.
Types of Decisions to Make
When Interpreting Data
6. Move on to a New Phase of Learning
- If the child has achieved mastery criteria for a
current target is it time to move on to a new
target? generalization phase? a fluency phase?
- For example, if a child can identify a number of
objects by touching them when the name of the
object is presented, can he/she perform the
same skill quickly and fluently and for longer
periods of time.
Types of Decisions to Make
When Interpreting Data
7. Move on to a New Skill
If the data show that a skill can be demonstrated
fluently, accurately and under a variety of
conditions it may be time to move on to a new
program. Be sure to continue to monitor
previously acquired responses once new skills
or concepts have been introduced.
Types of Decisions to Make
When Interpreting Data
8. Begin Compliance Training
- In some cases the data reflect a high rate
of non-response. If the team agrees that
the current target and teaching procedures
are appropriate and the child should be
able to perform the task, there may be a
need for a program to be implemented that
involves the child complying with the
instructor’s directives.
Principles of
Reinforcement
Primary vs. Secondary
1. Primary (Unconditioned) = things which are naturally reinforcing (e.g.,
food, drink).
2. Secondary (Conditioned) = things which acquire reinforcing properties
with learning (e.g., toys, games, praise, grades, privileges etc.).
Principles of
Reinforcement
Contingent vs. Noncontingent
1. Contingent = Delivered after child has responded to specific
instruction (e.g., responding to an SD)
2. Non-contingent = Delivered in the absence of a specific
demand (e.g., Child is sitting quietly on a couch watching
television, an adult approaches and hands the child an m&m.)
Principles of
Reinforcement
Varied vs. Differential
1. Varied = Offering the child a variety of reinforcers
across a number of trials (e.g., hugs, toys, food etc.
NOT monotonously saying “Good Job!” over and over
and over and over…)
2. Differential = Most powerful reinforcers are delivered
for the best responses.
Principles of
Reinforcement
Positive vs. Negative
1. Positive = ADDING something to the
situation.
2. Negative= REMOVING something
from the situation.
Reinforcement
and Punishment
Reinforcement: Increases behavior
Punishment: Decreases
Behavior
Definitions
28. Positive Reinforcement
Adding something to Increase behavior
29. Negative Reinforcement
-
Remove something to Increase behavior
30. Positive Punishment
Add something to Decrease behavior
31. Negative Punishment
-
Remove something to Decrease behavior
What influences the
effectiveness of reinforcement ?
Immediacy
Reinforcement must be delivered immediately
following the target behavior (i.e., response).
Contingency
A relationship between a response and a consequence in
which the consequence is presented if and only
if the response occurs.
– Miltenberger (pg. 559, 2004)
What influences the
effectiveness of reinforcement ?
Deprivation
Lack of access to a reinforcing item increases
the value of that item as a reinforcer.
Satiation
Constant access to a reinforcing
item decreases the value of that item as a reinforcer.
Once the item has lost its value, it
is no longer a reinforcer.
What influences the
effectiveness of reinforcement ?
Individual Differences
What may be a reinforcer for one
child may not be a reinforcer for
another child.
Magnitude
The amount of a reinforcer that is available
may make that reinforcer stronger, thereby
strengthening the behavior that
preceded it faster than less reinforcement.
Schedules of Reinforcement
Definition: Specifies which responses will be
followed by delivery of the reinforcer.
- Miltenberger (pg.565, 2004)
Three Main Schedules
Extinction (EXT)
Intermittent (INT)
Continuous (CRF)
Schedules of Reinforcement
Extinction (EXT)
Intermittent (INT)
Continuous (CRF)
1. Extinction (EXT): None of the target behaviors are
followed by reinforcement.
2. Continuous (CRF): All of the target behaviors are
followed by reinforcement.
3. Intermittent (INT): Some occurrences of the target
behavior are followed by reinforcement.
Intermittent Schedules of Reinforcement
Ratio Schedules
“Ratio schedules require that a certain number of
responses be emitted before one response
is reinforced.”
- Cooper, Heron, Heward (1987,pg. 278)
Interval Schedules
“ Interval schedules require that a given interval
of time elapses before a response can
be reinforced.”
- Cooper, Heron, Heward (1987,pg. 278)
Intermittent Schedules of Reinforcement
Ratio and Interval schedules can be applied
in a “FIXED”or “VARIABLE” manner.
Fixed Ratio (FR): The ratio remains constant.
Example: FR3 = after every third correct response the child receives a reinforcer.
Variable Ratio (VR): The number of correct responses
prior to reinforcement varies.
Example: VR3 = On average, after every third correct response the child receives
a reinforcer.
Intermittent Schedules of Reinforcement
Fixed Interval (FI): “In a fixed interval schedule of
reinforcement, the first correct or desired
response after a designated and constant amount
of time produces the reinforcer.”
- Cooper, Heron, Heward (1987 pg, 284)
Example: FI 6 = After six minutes, the first correct or desired response the child
receives a reinforcer.
Variable Interval (VI): “In a variable interval
schedule…reinforcement is contingent upon the
passage of time.” - Cooper, Heron, Heward (1987 pg, 284)
Example: VI 6 = On average, the child will receive reinforcement after six
minutes have elapsed.
Advantages of the Variable
Ratio Schedule of Reinforcement
1.The child cannot anticipate when the
reinforcer will be delivered thereby
creating consistency of responding.
2. Increased rates of responding.
3. Resistance to Extinction
“On page 564 in Miltenberger, Resistance to
Extinction is defined as…’the tendency for a
person to continue to respond after extinction is
in effect for the behavior’.”
Punishment
The most common misconception about punishment by persons
not in the field of behavior analysis is the misinterpretation that
PUNISHMENT is something that is “meted out to a person who
has committed a crime or other inappropriate behavior. In this
context, punishment involves not only the hope that the
behavior will cease, but also elements of retribution or
retaliation; part of the intent is to hurt the person that has
committed the crime. …Authority figures such as governments,
police, churches, or parents impose punishment to inhibit
inappropriate behavior-that is, to keep people from breaking
laws or rules. Punishment may involve prison time, the electric
chair, fines, the threat of going to hell, spanking or scolding.
However the every day meaning of punishment is very different
from the technical definition of punishment used in behavior
modification.
- Miltenberger (pg. 114, 2004)
Punishment
In Behavior Modification the term
punishment only refers to “a
consequence that makes a particular
behavior less likely to occur in the
future.”
- Miltenberger (pg. 112, 2004)
Punishment
Positive Punishment
1. The occurrence of a behavior
2. is followed by the presentation of an aversive stimulus
3. and, as a result, the behavior is less likely to occur in the future.
Example 1:



While driving in traffic, you look down to find the cell
phone that is ringing
You are not aware that the car in front of you has stopped,
you hit the car fast enough to deploy the airbag which hits
you full force causing lacerations and contusions.
The next time you are driving in traffic you have a hands
free unit in order to avoid having to look down to answer
the phone.
Punishment
Positive Punishment
1. The occurrence of a behavior
2. is followed by the presentation of an aversive stimulus
3. and, as a result, the behavior is less likely to occur in the future.
Example 2:
1.
2.
3.
A child is near a hot stove
The child touches the hot stove and gets a mild burn
on his hand
The child is less likely to touch the hot stove in the
future.
Punishment
Negative Punishment
1. The occurrence of a behavior
2. is followed by the removal of a reinforcing stimulus
3. and, as a result, the behavior is less likely to occur in the future.
Example 1:

A child who is earning tokens contingent on “responding to the
teacher” in a specialized classroom is staring at the lights in the
class and does not respond when the teacher tells him to take out
a pencil

The child’s aide removes one of the tokens

The child stops looking at the lights
Punishment
Negative Punishment
1. The occurrence of a behavior
2. is followed by the removal of a reinforcing stimulus
3. and, as a result, the behavior is less likely to occur in the future.
Example 2:
1.
2.
3.
A little girl who attended a preschool hit the other
children if they tried to play with her toys
The teacher put her in time-out
and, as a result the little girl no longer hits the other
children.
Problems with Punishment
1. Punishment may produce aggression or other
emotional side effects.
2. The use of punishment may result in escape or
avoidance behaviors by the person whose
behavior is being punished.
3. The use of punishment may be negatively
reinforcing for the person using punishment
and thus may result in the misuse or the
overuse of punishment.
Problems with Punishment
4. When punishment is used, its use is modeled
and observers or people whose behavior is
punished may be more likely to use
punishment themselves in the future.
5. Punishment is associated with a number of
ethical issues and issues of acceptability.
All that reinforcement and
punishment stuff is interesting
but how do I motivate the kids
I work with?
How do we Motivate?
Establishing Operation (EO)
“Any change in the environment which
alters the effectiveness of some
object or event as reinforcement and
simultaneously alters the momentary
frequency of the behavior that has
been followed by that reinforcement.”
Michael (1982)
Examples of
O
E s
1. Technical: “Food deprivation makes food
a more effective form of reinforcement
and increases the current frequency of
all behavior that has been reinforced with
food.” Michael (2000)
2. “Real Life”: Child has not eaten for a few
hours, smells pizza and says, “I want
pizza.” Why? What do you do next?
Examples of
O
E s
3. “Real Life”: A child is called to the work table.
The child complies (but is not happy about it) sits
in the chair fidgeting and not offering eye contact.
The instructor delivers social praise for leaving a
preferred activity to return to the work area. The
instructor then presents the child with a small box
that contains a number of the child’s highly
preferred items and before the instructor can say
anything the child eagerly says, “Chip...chip….I
want chip…” and offers eye contact and stops
fidgeting.
Why? What do you think caused the change in the
child’s motivation?
How?
1.
Capture opportunities to build on language
when the child speaks first. Don’t just have a
preconceived notion of what should happen
next during the therapy session.
2.
Contrive opportunities for the child to speak
first by making changes to the environment
that will stimulate the child to speak first;
thereby allowing the instructors to offer
reinforcement and to expand on the language
that is being used.
Blah, blah, extinction, blah
blah, reinforce, blah, blah, blah, EO,
blah, blah, blah, blah, I supposed to be
programming this kid. What behavioral
curricula are available to me?
Curricula
1. UCLA (Lovaas) Curriculum: Not readily available to the
public. “A Work in Progress” is available which was
written two consultants who trained at the UCLA Clinic.
Early learning programs are outlined in both of Dr.
Lovaas’ books.
2. The ABLLS: The Assessment of Basic Language and
Learning Skills. Sundberg and Partington.
Readily available to the public.
3. The IGS (Individual Goal Selection) Curriculum.
Romanczyk, Lockshin and Matey.
Readily available to the public.
Programming Using the
UCLA or IGS Curriculum
1.
2.
3.
4.
Receptive Programs: Programs that require a child to
respond non-verbally.
Expressive Programs: Programs that require the child to
respond vocally.
Imitation Programs: Programs that require the child to
imitate the actions of others.
Conversation Programs: Teach children to engage in
“contrived” conversational exchanges that may lead to
more natural conversation skills.
Teaching primarily involves discrete trial teaching utilizing
the three term contingency (SD----R----SR) and incidental
teaching away from the teaching table.
Note: There are other domains within these curricula, but they are not the focus of
discussion.
Programming Using Skinner’s Analysis of
Verbal Behavior as Outlined in the Sundberg
and Partington Manuals
1. Mand: A request that occurs under the control of the
control of the child’s motivation (i.e., EO/MO).
2. Tact : Programs that require the child to verbally label
items, pictures etc.
3. Receptive: Programs that require the child to identify
items non-verbally.
4. Intraverbal: Programming that requires the child to answer
questions or “fill-in” the blank.
5. Motor Imitation: Programs that require the child to imitate
the actions of another person.
6. Echoic: Imitating the vocalizations of another person.
Programming Using Skinner’s Analysis of
Verbal Behavior as Outlined in the Sundberg
and Partington Manuals
Teaching primarily focuses on the
four term contingency (EO/SD-----R----SR)
and NET (natural environment
teaching) as the focus of teaching the
mand.
FUNCTIONS OF BEHAVIOR
What is a “function” of behavior?
“Generally speaking, the variable maintaining
a given behavior (e.g., what might be
reinforcing the behavior?).”
- Newman, Reeve, Reeve, and Ryan (2003 pg.51)
Four Classes of Reinforcing Consequences
According to the Functional Analysis Model
Social Positive Reinforcement
“When a positively reinforcing consequence is delivered by another
person after the target behavior…”
-Miltenberger (2004 pg.261)
Social Negative Reinforcement
“When another person terminates an aversive interaction, task, or activity
after the occurrence of a target behavior… -Miltenberger (2004 pg.261)
Automatic Positive Reinforcement
“…the reinforcing consequence of a target behavior is not mediated by
another person but occurs as an automatic consequence of the
behavior itself.”
-Miltenberger (2004 pg.262)
Automatic Negative Reinforcement
“…when the target behavior automatically reduces or eliminates an
aversive stimulus as a consequence of the behavior.”
-Miltenberger (2004 pg.262)
Four General Classes of Controlling Variables
according to the Communication Model
1. Attention
2. Escape or Avoidance
3. Access to Materials or Activities
4. Sensory or Perceptual Consequences
Behavior Reduction
Descriptive Analysis
Operationally define the behavior.
- Include a brief description of how the staff have been
addressing the behavior.
- Conduct Baseline measure to determine frequency, duration
etc.
- Collect A-B-C (antecedent-behavior-consequence) data.
- Identify the maintaining reinforcer (i.e., function).
- Identify potential replacement behaviors.
- Implement the behavior plan with a timeline for
reassessment.
- Graph the data.
- If the behavior plan has had little or no effect –REASSESS!
Behavior Reduction
Two main reasons why behavior plans fail:
1. INCONSISTENCY!
2. WRONG PLAN!
Behavior Reduction
Some reasons why behavior plans succeed:
1.
Maintaining contingency has been properly identified.
2.
Opportunity for the child to engage in appropriate replacement
behavior is frequently contrived (i.e., proactive) thereby allowing
team to deliver high rates of reinforcement for the replacement
behavior.
3.
The team has CONSISTENTLY followed through on all components
of intervention.
4.
Intervention consists of proactive as well as reactive strategies.
Behavior Reduction
General Rule: Use the least intrusive and
most natural technique that is effective.
Remember: If mom and dad cannot follow
through with the intervention, choose
another intervention!
Behavior Reduction
Basic Techniques for Reducing Behaviors
Extinction
Definition: Removal of all reinforcement for a previously reinforced behavior.
- Often used with aggression, attention-seeking behaviors, tantrums, and verbal
protest.
- Attention is not paid to the behavior nor are demands reduced as a result of the
behavior. Do not say “no” in response to the behavior. Continue with the
presentation of instructions without changing inflection in your voice. Prompt the
child, if necessary, to respond to your instruction and provide a consequence to
the response or lack thereof to your SD. Avoid obvious changes in body
language (e.g., facial expressions); children are often able to pick up even the
smallest of cues.
- In order to remain consistent, it is necessary to avoid inadvertently attempting to
either comfort or quiet the child when they are crying, which is a natural
response to that behavior.
- Extinction is not effective for intrinsically reinforcing behavior such as selfstimulatory behavior.
Behavior Reduction
Basic Techniques for Reducing Behaviors
DRO: Differential Reinforcement of Other Behavior
Definition: Any appropriate behavior other than the behavior selected for reduction
will be reinforced. In other words, “catch” the child engaging in appropriate
behavior and deliver reinforcement.
DRI/DRA:
a. Differential Reinforcement of Incompatible Behavior
b. Differential Reinforcement of Alternative Behavior
Definitions:
a. A behavior that is incompatible with the behavior selected for
reduction is
followed by reinforcement.
b. A behavior that has been selected to replace the behavior selected for
reduction is followed by reinforcement.
Behavior
Reduction
Basic Techniques for Reducing Behaviors
Time-Out From Positive Reinforcement
Definition: Removal of all reinforcing stimuli for a period of time
contingent upon the behavior. Note that this differs from extinction
in that during extinction, only reinforcement for the target behavior is
withheld.
Typically carried out in a specific location, such as a “Time Out” chair,
in an uninteresting environment.
In order for Time-Out to be effective, the child needs to find the removal
from people or the environment undesirable.
As a general rule, the duration of the time-out should be approximately
1 minute per year of the child’s age.
Behavior Reduction
All Time-Outs should be conducted in a well-lit, open, and supervised area.
If the child is crying or protesting, he should not be excused from Time Out until a
specified period (e.g., 30 seconds) of appropriate behavior has elapsed. Do not
excuse the child the moment he stops crying or protesting.
Do not reward the child when he leaves the time-out situation. The child should be
excused in a matter-of-fact manner.
Limitations:
1. Not effective if it allows the child to leave the situation he/she was trying to
avoid.
2. Not effective if the child can engage in self-stimulatory behavior while in timeout.
3. Not effective unless the child has a good repertoire of alternative behaviors for
which he/she will miss out on being reinforced.
Common Treatment Mistakes
Made with Early Learners
1. Not making learning reinforcing in general.
2. Overusing the child's name, which may result in the child “tuning out” their
name.
3. Not requiring eye contact when it is appropriate.
4. Forgetting to reward the child for frequently occurring behaviors such as
sitting well or coming over to the teaching table.
5. Not following a prompted trial with an unprompted trial.
6. Not providing a prompt after two incorrect trials, thus allowing repeated
failures.
7. Not prompting frequently enough for newly introduced responses.
8. Providing a primary reinforcer for a prompted trial (i.e., not using
differential reinforcement).
9. Not ensuring all trials are discrete
Common Treatment Mistakes
Made with Early Learners
10. Not being creative with the delivery of reinforcement.
11. Not programming for generalization.
12. Not actively gaining the child’s attention through redirection and
effective reinforcement techniques. Or spending too much time at the
beginning of a sitting gaining the child’s attention, making the child reliant
upon this.
13. Waiting passively for the child to attend prior to presenting an SD.
14. Relying on an attentional cue (e.g., “ready pal”) before presenting an SD.
15. Allowing the child to self-correct or engage in multiple responses.
16. Waiting longer than 3-5 seconds following a non-response to provide a
consequence.
17. The number of failures is disproportionate to the number of successes.
18. Allowing the child to respond with a “win–stay : lose–shift” pattern.
Common Treatment Mistakes
Made with Early Learners
19. Not having clear response criteria.
20. Prompting inadvertently.
21. Not introducing new items or formats when the child has mastered all current items or formats.
22. Having too many items or programs on acquisition at one time.
23. Not structuring the child’s free play time.
24. Continuing a sitting too long and losing the child’s attention or reducing motivation for quick
accurate responding.
25. Having children 3 years old and younger at a table and chair for most of their therapy time.
26. Using ONLY discrete trials to teach new skills and concepts.
27. Focusing on data collection and not the child.
28. Blaming the child’s disability for slow or no acquisition instead of reviewing the programming,
behavioral interventions, reinforcers, instructor consistency and teaching environments.
29. Having unclear roles and responsibilities of staff; no chain of command.
30. Not involving the parents in ALL aspects of THEIR child’s program.
Parents
1. The child’s parents are the most important part of the team!
They are the ones that are home after all of the therapists
leave. If they don’t know how to follow through, the child
will not get maximum benefit from their therapies.
2. Work with parents to teach them how to work with their
child. This should empower them whereas not teaching
them the proper instructional and behavior management
methods will make them feel helpless.
3. Be patient! Some parents do not just “jump right in” and start
doing therapy from day one. Encourage them, ask them
what they are comfortable learning how to do. If they
refuse, do not write them off, continue to provide guidance
and answer any and all questions in a professional
manner.
Parents
4. Many parents feel overwhelmed, so do not look or act
disappointed when they do not “make materials” or if they do
not offer refreshments at team meetings. Divide the
responsibilities for making materials amongst the individual
team members. If refreshments are an issue, eat before the
team meeting and grab a bottle of water.
5. If your responsibility is as “parent trainer” then TRAIN. Arrive
at your client’s home with an agenda and then teach the
parents in a hands on manner, don’t just talk.
6. You don’t have to be friends with a parent in order to be a
good therapist for their child.
Parents
7. Always respect the parents wishes. You are a guest in their
home. If they request something you disagree with, honor
the request in the moment and then bring it up with your
supervisor. Do not argue with or confront parents.
8. Don’t bring your private problems to your client’s home.
Take a deep breath before you go into their home and teach
their child.
9. Many parents are very friendly and can be engaging, do not
take advantage of this. Remember, that is their child’s
therapy session. Keep the chit-chat to a minimum.
10. Above all else, never criticize the parents, their home or
their child! We are here to help them. Always offer support
and encouragement and be sure to reinforce parents when
they are following through.
ANY
?