The Four Strands:
an
OVERVIEW
1. Learning through Meaning-Focused Input
2. Learning through Meaning-Focused Output
3. Learning through Deliberate Attention to Language
Items and Language Features
1. Developing Fluency in the Use of Known Language
Items and Features
1. Learning through
Meaning-Focused Input
 Learning through listening and reading: Input
 Learner’s attention on ideas and messages conveyed
through the language: ‘taking in’
2. Learning through
Meaning-Focused Output
 Learning through speaking and writing: Output
 Learner’s attention is on conveying ideas and
messages to another person: ‘putting out’
3. Language-Focused Learning
 Learning through detailed focus on form, deliberate
teaching, deliberate learning of language features
 “The term language-focused learning is preferred
because terms like focus on form and form-focused
instruction are misleading” and are not always seen
as connected to instruction but can be seen as
“autonomous learning” (Nation and Newton, 2009).
4. Developing Fluency
 Involves the four skills: listening, speaking, reading,
and writing
 Develops fluency with what is already known
Pros, Cons, & Applications
 Cons:
 Assumed to substitute quantity for quality
 Assumed to prefer form over communicative style
teaching
 Pros:
 Involves all four components: Listening, Speaking,
Reading, Writing.
 Distinguishes accuracy from fluency: the practical
application of language learning
 Applies Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development
1. Meaning Focused Input
 Main focus is understanding (alongside gaining
knowledge and enjoyment)
 Required conditions:
 Most of information (listening and/or reading) is
already known to student
 Students are interested in information
 Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development
 Large quantities of Input (most of it familiar)
 Methods: assigned readings, in-class readings,
overhead presentations for listening
Vygotsky's ZPD states that the best teaching/learning is done with a learner at the level of knowledge of the learner, where
another (the instructor) pushes the learner just beyond the familiar.
Requirements & Results of
Meaning Focused Input
 Requires repetition*
 Slow progress, small gains, and consistent building
on existing knowledge of student
 Incidental Learning: e.g. incidental vocabulary
learning occurred during vocabulary work and
during level-specific reading
* "[S]econd language learners need to read at least one graded reader every two weeks in order to . . . establish
substantial vocabulary growth through incidental learning" (Nation and Wang, 1999).
2. Meaning Focused Output: Using
Language Productively
Nation and Newton summarize the five main points of
Meaning Focused Output:
1. Learners write and talk about familiar ideas.
2. Learners’ main goal is to transfer their message to
another individual.
3. The large majority of the language used is familiar
to the student.
4. Learners are allowed to use outside sources as aids.
5. “There are plenty of opportunities to produce.”
Meaning Focused Output:
Application
 Being proactive in the classroom: “One person’s
output can be another person’s input” (Nation and
Newton, 2009).
 This is an excellent use for group work.
Output is Qualitatively
Different from Input
1.
The ‘noticing/triggering’ function: Learners notice gaps and
realize they do not know how to say what they want to say.
2. The hypothesis testing function: Learners try something,
then confirm or modify it based on success and/or feedback.
3. The metalinguistic (reflective) function: Using output
collaboratively to solve language problems.
4. Collaborative work can include, for example, ‘whiteboard or
group composition to produce piece of written work.’
(Nation and Newton, 2009)
#1 - #3: Swain, 2005
3. Language-Focused Learning
 Language-focused learning is more formal, where
students use index/vocabulary cards, pronunciation
software, textbooks, intensive reading with feedback,
translation, etc.
 Language-focused learning includes repetition.
 Language-focused learning – again – involves a
combination of mostly familiar language with new
language.
 What is learned in this strand must be included in the
other three strands: It cannot be separate.
4. Becoming Fluent in Listening,
Speaking, Reading, and Writing
 Fluency is meaning-focused.
 According to Nation and Newton, four conditions must
be present:
1.
2.
3.
4.
All material is largely familiar to learners.
Learners focus is on input or output.
Some pressure is applied by instructor (Vygotsky).
“There is a large amount of input or output.”
 Fluency is not involved when introducing new
vocabulary.
Fluency - continues
“The fluency strand should make up about one-quarter of
the course time. It is time out from learning new items and
is a time for getting good at using what is already known”
(Nation and Newton, 2009).
 Fluency practice increases fluency.
 Fluency aided by a tutor/teacher increases fluency even
more.
Use all Four Strands
 All four strands should be balanced as equally as
possible.
 Consider “Time on Task” when planning lessons.
 Remember: “How can you learn to do something if you
don’t do that during learning” (italics mine) (Nation &
Newton, 2009)
Nation and Newton’s
Pedagogical Principles
Below is a section of the book quoted word for word:
1.
Provide and organise large amounts of comprehensible
input through both listening and reading. This could involve
providing an extensive reading programme, reading to the
learners, getting learners to give talks for their classmates to
listen to, arranging spoken communication activities, and
interaction via the internet.
2. Boost learning through comprehensible input by adding a
deliberate element. Note words on the board as they occur
in listening, do consciousness-raising activities before
communicative tasks, get learners to reflect on new items
they meet while reading, explain problem items that come
up in the context of communication activities.
Nation and Newton’s
Pedagogical Principles, cont.
3. Support and push learners to produce spoken and
written output in a variety of appropriate genres. Use
communication activities in a range of situations, use
role plays, match writing and speaking tasks to learner
needs.
4. Provide opportunities for cooperative interaction. Do
group work involving opinion gap and information gap
tasks, get learners to work together on writing and
reading.
Nation and Newton’s
Pedagogical Principles, cont.
5. Help learners deliberately learn language items and
patterns, including sounds, spelling, vocabulary, multiword units, grammar, and discourse. Do teacher-led
intensive reading, give feedback on writing,
deliberately teach language items, arrange individual
study of language items.
6. Train learners in strategies that will contribute to
language learning. Work on guessing from context,
dictionary use, word part analysis, and learning using
word cards.
Nation and Newton’s
Pedagogical Principles, cont.
7. Provide fluency development activities in each of the
four skills of listening, speaking, reading, and writing.
Include repeated reading, provide an extensive reading
programme, organise a regular ten-minute writing
programme, do listening to stories.
8. Provide a roughly equal balance of the four strands of
meaning-focused input, meaning-focused output,
language-focus learning, and fluency development.
Keep a record of the activities done in the course, the
strand they fit into, and the amount of time spent on
them.
Nation and Newton’s
Pedagogical Principles, cont.
9. Plan for the repeated coverage of the most useful
language items. Focus on high frequency items, use
controlled and simplified material, provide plenty of
input at the same level.
10. Use analysis, monitoring, and assessment to help
address learners’ language and communication needs:
What worked? What didn’t work? Why? How do you
know?
Summary
 Please note that the items I highlighted in bold, #8
and #10, are items that I will be asking you to reflect
on for your own, self-assessment.
 We will talk about self-assessment during the next
staff meeting.
References
Chaiklin, S. (2003). The zone of proximal development in Vygotsky's analysis of learning and instruction. In A.
Kozulin, B. Gindis, V. S. Ageyev, & S. M. Miller (Eds.), Vygotsky's Education Theory in Cultural
Context (pp. 38-64). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Nation, I., & Newton, J. (2009). Teaching ESL/EFL Listening and Speaking. New York: Routledge Press.