We think with words, therefore to improve
thinking, teach vocabulary.
-- A. Draper and G. Moeller
Four Part Processing System
Context
Processor
Concept & Information;
Sentence Context;
Text Structure
Meaning
Processor
Vocabulary
speech
sound system
Phonemic Awareness
letter memory
Phonics
Phonological
Processor
speech output
2
Fluency
writing output
Orthographic
Processor
reading input
Reading –Vocabulary Connection
Exposed to
1,800,000 words
per year
Exposed to 282,000
words per year
Exposed to 8,000
words per year
>1 minute
4.6 minutes
20 minutes
Shaywitz, S. (2003). Overcoming Dyslexia.New
York: Alfred A. Knopf.
The Matthew Effect
-Stanovich 1986
How Does SES Relate To This?
Family
Status
Words
heard per
hour
Words
heard per
week
Words
heard per
year
Words
heard per
4 year
period
Low SES
616
62,000
3 million
12 million
Working
Class
1,251
125,000
6 million
26 million
Professional
2,153
215,000
11 million 45 million
Hart and Risley, 1997
Fact #1
 High achieving high school seniors
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knew about 4 times as many words as
their low achieving classmates. (Smith)
 A literate high school graduate has a
reading and spoken vocabulary of
approximately 60,000 words.
 His/her low achieving counterpart has
an approximate vocabulary of 15,000
words. That’s 5,000 words less than an
average 6th grade students.
7
Fact #2
 Higher performing third graders had
vocabularies about equal to the lowest
performing twelfth graders. (Smith)
 The daily newspaper is written on a 5th
– 6th grade level. Low performing 12th
graders would have difficulty reading
the daily news.
9
8
Fact #3
 The vocabulary of upper SES first
graders is about twice the size of their
lower SES peers. (Graves & Slater)
 Recent
research show that linguistically
“poor” first graders knew 5,000 words;
linguistically “rich” first graders knew
20,000 words. That translates into 4
times as many words (Moats, 2001.)
10
Remember the Matthew Effect . . .
9
Taking it back to text . . .
Why Oral Language Experience is Not Enough
Frequency of Word Use in Major Sources of Oral and
Written Language (Hayes & Ahrens, 1988)
Rare Words per 1,000
I. Printed texts
Newspapers
68.3
Popular magazines 65.7
Adult books
52.7
Children’s books
30.9
Preschool books
16.3
11
II. Television texts
Adult shows
22.7
Children’s shows 20.2
III. Adult speech
College graduates 17.3
talk with friends/
spouses
National Parks Vocabulary
Gallery Walk
•Write 5 words that you
associate with National Parks.
(one word per sticky note)
Key Perspectives
Perspective #1:
The conventional wisdom is that most vocabulary
is learned from context (Cunningham &
Stanovich.)
 This is the reading done OUTSIDE of direct instruction. It
is solely dependent that the student is an avid
independent reader.
 BUT . . .
 Students with decoding deficits do little to no
independent reading outside of school.
 Students with limited oral language have difficulty in
comprehension-building during reading, and usually
read lower-level texts that offer no venue for rich
vocabulary.
13
Perspective #2:
Students are successfully developing their vocabularies.
 Growth in vocabulary knowledge is usually
based on student performance on tests.
 Tests typically are in a MC or matching format.
 The results of tests such as these can lead to false
conclusions.
 The scores imply vocabulary growth, but it is measuring
short-term memorization.
 Most tests are given after a chapter and the words on the
tests are never revisited again.
14
21
Perspective #3:
Rigor in vocabulary development is confined to instructional practices
of: synonyms, antonyms, definitions, and putting the word in a
sentence.
 Look vocabulary words up in the dictionary/write the
definitions
 Write the words three times each
 Write each word in a sentence.
So, what’s the problem with that?
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Let’s look at a simple word…
Cinnamon
cin·na·mon

/ˈsɪnəmən/ [sin-uh-muhn]
 –noun 1. the aromatic inner bark of any of several East






Indian trees belonging to the genus Cinnamonum, of the
laurel family, especially the bark of C. zeylanicum (Ceylon
cinnamon), used as a spice, or that of C. loureirii (Saigon
cinnamon), used in medicine as a cordial and carminative.
2. a tree yielding such bark.
3. any allied or similar tree.
4. cassia( def. 1 ) .
5. a yellowish or reddish brown.
6.–adjective . (of food) containing or flavored with
cinnamon.
7. reddish-brown or yellowish-brown.
Formative Assessment
Cinnamon is a ____________
that ____________ in order
to________________.
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What about graphic organizers?
Word Maps are a type of
graphic organizer used
routinely to provide a
“visual” in vocabulary
development.
Let’s look at one.
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Typical Word Map
List
2 synonyms
Give an example
explanation
WORD
List
2 antonyms
20
Write the dictionary
definition/s
Nothing is wrong with a word map if:



appropriately formatted for effective vocabulary
instruction. That is, the map does not constrain the
students’ understanding of the word to a single
context/meaning.
used AFTER the students have had extensive instruction
and interaction with the word.
used as part of the instruction – the teacher is
guiding,scaffolding, and developing a deep understanding.
Caution: Remember to ask yourself the all important question, “Why am I having
the students do this and what are they getting from it?”
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But . . .
 Used as an independent student activity without
a lot of preparation it is virtually useless.




Superficial
Limited contexts
Limited exposure
NOT the way the mind connects and/or visualizes
things (Visualization and connections require
discrimination activities that establish the subtle
nuances of a word.)
In other words, you will not visualize a word map in
your mind’s eye.
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So, what’s the solution?
A FEW PRINCIPLES
TO GUIDE US:
1. Knowledge of a word is
not an all or nothing
proposition (Beck, 1985.)
2. Knowledge of definitions
and understanding word
meanings are not the
same thing (Stahl &
Fairbanks, 1986.)
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34
Rich Vocabulary Instruction
Rich vocabulary instruction
requires the learner to process
words, think about words,
interact with words in some
way and with others to promote
comprehension facilitation.
24
Words are known on a continuum that
ranges from:
36
General Principles for Instruction:
 Select
challenging words: teach “above” not below
spoken language knowledge.
 Do not always select words contained within the text:
select words that the text is about – “idea” words.
 Use multiple contexts and rich examples for the
students before expecting them to use the words at
all.
27
39
Impact of Direct Vocabulary Instruction
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
None
Direct Instruction
Direct In Content
Stahl and Fairbanks, 1986
Selecting the Words
Let’s divide the corpus of the
language into three parts.
Tier One: the most basic words
Tier Two: high-frequency words
for skilled language users.
Tier Three: specific words with
low frequency of general use.

Beck, I., McKeown, M., & Kucan, L. (2002
Choosing words based on Tiers
Tier 3: Low-frequency words, usually specific to an
academic domain & best learned in the related
content area, such as isotope, photosynthesis &
psychologist.
Tier 2: High-frequency words that are important
for capable language learners to have in their
vocabulary, such as remorse, capricious, distinguished, &
devious.
Tier 1: Basic words that rarely need to be taught,
such as hair, always, dress, & laugh.
Beck, I., McKeown, M., & Kucan, L. (2002)
Your Turn: Prioritize Your Vocabulary
1.Look at your list of National Parks
words.
2.Decide how you would classify each
word (Tier 1, 2, or 3).
3.Share out by putting one post-it on
each chart paper
Content Vocabulary
Although the events of m____ usually proceed
accurately, sometimes ___________ fail to
separate correctly. The failure of __________
___________ to separate properly during
m______ is called non___________. Recall that
during m________, one __________ from each
__________ pair moves to each ____ of the cell.
In non___________, both ___________ of a
__________ pair move to the same ____ of the
cell.
Content Vocabulary
Although the events of meiosis usually proceed
accurately, sometimes chromosomes fail to
separate correctly. The failure of homologous
chromosomes to separate properly during meiosis
is called nondisjunction. Recall that during meiosis,
one chromosome from each homologous pair
moves to each pole of the cell. In nondisjunction,
both chromosomes of a homologous pair move to
the same pole of the cell.
How Much Vocabulary Do They Need to Know?
 Independent Level: 95% of the text
 Instructional Level: 90-95% of the text
 Frustration Level: below 90% of the text
Partnership for Learning, 2001
Opportunistic Classroom Vocabulary
yearning
Instead of saying: “I know you really wanted
to go outside for recess, but it is raining and
we cannot.
Try… “I know that all of you were yearning to
go outside and play during recess today.
However, the rain will prohibit us from doing
that today.
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Give Positive Examples:
 Yearning can be a good thing too. Sometimes
when we yearn for things it makes us work
harder to get them. If you are yearning for a
brand new bike, you might work on saving
your allowance to get one.
 Someone might yearn to be a better football
player. He might practice more often and
work harder to reach the goal that he is
yearning for.
36
Explain appropriateness of context:




37
Would someone who is yearning be likely to:
Throw a temper tantrum when they do not get what
they want?
Wish on a star?
Daydream about what they yearn for?
Give up pursuing what they yearn for?
Using Student Friendly Definitions
(Student Friendly or ESL Dictionary)










38
resent – to express anger or annoyance toward
someone or something
futile –to do something that will never give you the
result that you want; useless
pout – to show irritation using your expression
insult – to offend someone; to treat rudely
groan – to moan because you are angry or annoyed
courteous – to have manners and be considerate
intensity – to be strong or powerful
expression –a look on someone’s face that shows
feeling
terrible – very bad; awful
department – a section or part of something larger
Using imagery and a
non-definitional approach . . .
resent – to express anger or annoyance
toward someone or something



futile –to do something that will never give
you the result that you want; useless



39
when a sibling is more successful at something
when someone else was picked for a team
Studying for a subject area which you find to be
extremely difficult
learning to play the violin
Relationships Among Words
 Would you be courteous to someone who insulted
you?
 Would you groan if something was futile?
 Would hiding your feelings be an example of
pouting?
40
Using Word Associations
 Which word goes with kindness? (courteous)
 Which word goes with pointless? (futile)
 Which words go with bully? (resent, pout, insult,
groan)
41
Making Choices

If your parents made you permanently give your
bedroom to a relative would you . . .
 resent them?
 feel that the situation was futile?
 pout for a week?
 insult them behind their backs?
 groan noisily when they told you?
 act courteous and smile?
 say terrible things?
 show them an encouraging expression?
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Using Cagey Questions
 Cagey questions contain one or more
vocabulary words.
 They facilitate thinking about meanings of
words as well as meanings of sentences (build
comprehension.)
 There are not right or wrong answers to
cagey questions. However, they require the
student to justify their position in response to
the questions.
 They provide further experience dealing with
the vocabulary in a wide variety of contexts.
43
Some examples . . .
44

How might yearning for something cause someone to have
hope?

Which would be more likely to happen, flowers blossoming
on land that is barren or grassy?

What kind of protection might some shelters provide?

How might a person with integrity be defiant?

Which of these situations would be more likely to be
considered ominous: a walk alone through a dark alley or a
walk through the library during a quiet study hall?

Which of these might an elderly woman be more likely to
reminisce about: a recent visit to the doctor or memories of
holidays from her childhood?

Which person is more likely to feel remorse: a cunning boy
who gets caught cheating on a math quiz or a boy whose
mother finds him sneaking a brownie before dinner?
Let’s try a few . . .
 Write a cagey question using each of these word
pairs or groups:
serene and gaze
anticipate and ordinary
anxious, obsess, and
sinister (try using two or all
three!)
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Some ideas . . .
1. Serene and Gaze
•
Which of these is more likely to be considered
serene: spending a warm summer night gazing at
the stars or running to the car through a heavy
thunderstorm?
2. Anticipate and Ordinary
•
What kinds of events might you anticipate to
happen on an ordinary school day?
3. Anxious, Obsess, and Sinister
•
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How might an anxious person obsess over a
sinister noise that she hears late at night?
Implications for Teachers
Model the importance of vocabulary by
allocating daily time for instruction.
Teach vocabulary skills as well as
vocabulary meanings.
Consider contextual factors
Subject specific vocabulary
Multiple meaning words
Opportunities to utilize vocabulary across
multiple contexts