Duty Theory – Kant
Soazig Le Bihan -- University of
Montana
1
Introduction
Reminder on Utilitarianism:
Assessment in regarding the consequences
No absolute moral rules
Duty Theory: the opposite view:
Assessment in regarding the motives
Moral rules are absolute
Founding Father: Kant (1724-1804)
The man
The philosopher
Soazig Le Bihan -- University of
Montana
2
Outline
Duty Theory: Acting for the sake of duty only
Duty and Universality
Rationality as the Foundation of Morality
Objections and Answers
Conclusion: Kant’s legacy
Soazig Le Bihan -- University of
Montana
3
Duty Theory:
Acting for the sake of duty only
Basic Insights:
- Consequences are uncertain: Motives are the only thing
for which we are fully responsible
- We ought to do our duty
Ex: consoling your best friend
Duty Theory:
Duty theory is the view that what is right to do is to act in
conformity with, and for the sake of duty
What is the difference between the two?
Soazig Le Bihan -- University of
Montana
4
“In conformity with” vs “for the sake of”
duty
Three kinds of motives:
Example: the grocer and the kid
(1) Mediate desire – calculating person
(2) Immediate desire – friend of mankind
(3) For the sake of Duty – coldhearted man of principle
Duty Theory:
(2) and (3) are better than (1)
(3) is better than (2) -- reliable reason (autonomy) vs
changing desires (heteronomy)
 The true moral life is based on reason, not desires.
Soazig Le Bihan -- University of
Montana
5
Duty: Conclusion
Duty Theory:
(1) Moral actions assessed on the moral value of our
motives
(2) Valuable actions: these performed in conformity
with duty and for the sake of duty only.
 How do we know what our duty consists in?
Soazig Le Bihan -- University of
Montana
6
Outline
Duty Theory: For the sake of duty only
Duty and Universality
Rationality as the Foundation of Morality
Objections and Answers
Conclusion: Kant’s legacy
Soazig Le Bihan -- University of
Montana
7
Duty and Universality:
The Universalization Rule
Basic Idea:
Our duty is to follow the rules that allow us to live in
harmony
Our duty is then to follow the rules that we can will others
to follow
The Universalization Rule (the “Categorical Imperative”):
One’s duty is to act only according to that maxim by
which one can at the same time will that it should
become a universal law
Soazig Le Bihan -- University of
Montana
8
Duty and Universality:
The Test
The Universalization Test:
Determine the maxim of your action – can be hard but
not impossible
Universalization? – a requirement of consistency
Examples:
- Is it right to become a slaveholder? – direct contradiction
- Is it right to lie? – direct contradiction
- Is it right to neglect to develop our talents? – indirect
contradiction
- Is it right not to help others? – indirect contradiction
Soazig Le Bihan -- University of
Montana
9
Duty and Universality: Conclusion
The Universalization Rule:
(1) We do our duty when our maxims of actions are
universalizable
(2) The requirement of universalization is a
requirement of rational consistency.
To be moral is just to be rational
Soazig Le Bihan -- University of
Montana
10
Outline
Duty Theory: For the sake of duty only
Duty and Universality
Rationality as the Foundation of Morality
Objections and Answers
Conclusion: Kant’s legacy
Soazig Le Bihan -- University of
Montana
11
Rationality as the Foundation of Morality
From Rationality to Autonomy
To be rational is the only way to be truly free:
True Freedom is not about performing arbitrary acts
True Freedom is Autonomy, i.e. acting according to reason
Examples:
Carrot or chocolate cake?
Drinking night vs exam
 So: We are truly free when we make rational choices,
when we are autonomous.
Soazig Le Bihan -- University of
Montana
12
Rationality as the Foundation of Morality
From Autonomy to Dignity and Respect
Autonomy and Dignity:
Human Dignity comes from humans’ being capable of
following our duty, irrespective of their desires
Human Dignity comes from humans’ being capable of
autonomy
Dignity and Respect
Anyone ought to respect the autonomy of rational agents.
Soazig Le Bihan -- University of
Montana
13
Rationality as the Foundation of Morality
Respect
The Rule of Absolute Respect (Second formulation of the
Categorical Imperative)
Act so that you treat humanity, whether in your own
person or in that of another, always as an end and never
as a means only.
 What does it means?
Soazig Le Bihan -- University of
Montana
14
Rationality as the Foundation of Morality
Using people as means / as ends
Using people as means:
Tuskegee syphilis experiment
Superbad
The Deferential wife
 Lack of respect = Deprivation of the means for
autonomous behavior
Soazig Le Bihan -- University of
Montana
15
Rationality as the Foundation of Morality
Using people as means / as ends
Using people as means but also as ends:
HIV experiments
Superbad
 What is absolutely wrong is to use people as means
ONLY
Soazig Le Bihan -- University of
Montana
16
Rationality as the Foundation of Morality:
Conclusion
(1) To be rational = to be truly free – autonomous = to
have dignity = to be worthy of respect
(2) Rule of Absolute Respect = respect of one’s
autonomy – never use others as means only
(3) Rationality is the foundation of morality:
As rational, autonomous agents, we understand that
our duty is to do whatever is respectful of all
others’ rational agents autonomy, including
ousrselves.
As rational, autonomous agents, we understand that
our duty is to do whatever we could will be done
by all others. Soazig Le Bihan -- University of
Montana
17
Outline
Duty Theory: For the sake of duty only
Duty and Universality
Rationality as the Foundation of Morality
Objections and Answers
Conclusion: Kant’s legacy
Soazig Le Bihan -- University of
Montana
18
Objections and Answers
1. The Problem of Absolute Rules
Duty Theory: Rules of morality are absolute. They do not
suffer any exception.
Ex: It is wrong to lie
Objection: There are situations for which an exception is
necessary
Ex: Gestapo at your door
Answer:
- Uncertainty of consequences
- Full responsibility of your motives only
Soazig Le Bihan -- University of
Montana
19
Objections and Answers
2. Rational agents only?
Duty Theory: Rules of morality makes sense among rational,
autonomous agents.
Objection: What about non rational beings?
Kant on animals and the mentally impaired
Answer: Distinction between:
- Moral obligations
- Moral consideration
Soazig Le Bihan -- University of
Montana
20
Objections and Answers
3. The Problem of Character
Duty Theory: To act morally is to act in conformity of duty
and for the sake of duty only.
Ex: Friend of mankind vs cold hearted person
Objection: What about caring for others?
Ex: Your friend at the hospital
Answer: True Kantians stick to their guns here: feelings and
emotions do not count for being a moral agent.
 Only virtue ethics addresses this concern
Soazig Le Bihan -- University of
Montana
21
Objections and Answers
Conclusion
Strongest objections:
(1) Absolute rules for motives only
= Crucial difference with Utilitarianism.
(2) The problem of character
= Crucial difference with Virtue Ethics
 These objections don’t show that Duty Theory is
false, but show what counter-intuitive aspects it
has.
Soazig Le Bihan -- University of
Montana
22
Conclusion
Insights to keep from Kant:
(1) Morality ultimately grounded in rationality
(2) The moral life = rational life
(3) Universality of the moral point of view
(4) Beauty of duty
What is missing or problematic:
(1) The question of absolute rules and the neglect of
the consequences – a theory for personal
choices
(2) The neglect of character
Soazig Le Bihan -- University of
Montana
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