THE STUDY OF ETHICS
CHAPTER 1-4
ETHICS
derived
from the Greek word ethos which means
“characteristics way of acting”.
Latin
equivalent is mos, mores meaning “tradition or custom”.
Ethos
includes cultural mannerisms, religion, politics, laws, and
social aspirations of a group of people.
Ethos
refers to those characteristics belonging to man as a
rational being, endowed with intellect and free-will.
THE ETHOS OF MAN AS MAN IS REVEALED IN THE
FOLLOWING:

He is able to distinguish between good and evil, right and
wrong, moral and immoral.

He feels within himself an obligation to do what is good and to
avoid what is evil.

He feels himself accountable for his actions, expecting reward
or punishments for them.

Man is endowed by nature with a moral sense.
Self-conscious of his dignity and submits to the duty of doing
what is good and avoid what is wrong.

Man is expected to conducts himself according to the “dictates
of reason”.
ETHICS, ITS MEANING:
ETHICS

Defined as the science of the morality of human acts.

Actions reflect the motives of the doer

Study of human motivation, and of human rational
behavior. That aspect of the subject matter which
primarily interests Ethics is morality.
HUMAN ACTS

Actions performed by man, knowingly and
freely

Also called as deliberate or intentional actions,
or voluntary actions
ACTS OF MAN

Instinctive and involuntary
Morality




The quality of human acts by which they are constituted as
good, bad, or indifferent
Good is described as moral
Bad is described as immoral
Which is indifferent is amoral
VIRTUOUS

a person who has the habit or inclination to do
good
Vicious
 one who has a habit of doing wrong
ETHICS AS VALUE EDUCATION
In the classical tradition
Ethics is Moral Philosophy and is distinguished from Moral
Theology.
Ethics- relies solely on human reason to investigate truths.
Moral Theology- employs reason insofar as it is enlightened
by faith or divine revelation
IN CONTEMPORARY
CURRICULUM

Ethics takes place the form of Value Education.

A value is something a person prizes, cherishes,
and esteems as important to him. It includes
ideas, things, or experiences

Aim of Value Education- guides the individual in
choosing wisely his values and in acting upon
them.
Ethics is the rational foundation of any attempt at
Value Education
It goes deeper into the reasons why we must
choose certain values.
It explains human values in relation to the ultimate
purpose of human existence
THE ART OF CORRECT LIVING


Art is the appreciation of beauty.
it implies order and harmony
Ethics is an art
 It is a breath of life, pulsating with the
desire for growth and development.
 It is a master plan indicating where man
must go and what he ought to do in order
to live well
 Every man is an artist, creating something
of beauty out of his self
IMPORTANCE OF ETHICS
Ethics is an indispensible knowledge.
Without moral perception, man is only an
animal.
Without morality, man as rational being is a
failure.

MORAL INTEGRITY IS THE ONLY TRUE MEASURE OF
WHAT MAN OUGHT TO BE.
The most powerful king, or the most successful professional, is
nothing unless he too is morally upright.
Philosopher speak of ethics as the “only necessary knowledge”
Jacques Leclercq- “We are tempted to center everything on
human happiness”
Christianity and Money,p.9- “ forgetting that man’s greatness,
perfection and happiness, his whole meaning in fact,
consist in transcending the commonly accepted human
good”
MORALITY IS THE FOUNDATION OF EVERY HUMAN
SOCIETY.
Russell observes that “without civic morality,
communities perish; without personal morality
their survival has no value”.
TWO ETHICAL SYSTEMS
Atheistic Approach
 Assumes that only matter exists and that man is
responsible only to himself since there is no God
who creates and rules the universe.
 Morality is an intervention of man to suit his
requirements and to preserve his society.
 Moral truths are therefore temporary and mutable
depending on the situation.
 The concept of good and evil is always relative
and changeable.
ATHEISTIC THEORIES PROPOSE THE FOLLOWING
PRINCIPLES:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Matter is the only reality.
Matter is matter and does not have spiritual
dimension.
Man is free and must exercise his freedom to
promote the welfare of society.
There is no life after death.
Man is accountable only to the State.
THEISTIC APPROACH





Begins with the assumption that God is the Supreme
Lawgiver.
Everything must conform to God’s eternal plan of
creation.
Man must exercise his freedom in accordance with
God’s will.
There are absolute principles of morality which are not
changeable.
Man is accountable for his actions and deserves
either a reward or punishment in this life or in the
next.
THEISTIC THEORIES POSTULATE THE FOLLOWING
TRUTHS:
1.
2.
3.
4.
God is the Supreme Creator and Lawgiver.
Man is free and must use his freedom to
promote his personal and social interest
along with his fellowmen.
Man has an immortal soul which cannot die.
Man is accountable for his actions, both good
and evil.
ETHICS AND RELIGION
Ethics
A science and depends upon rational
investigation of its truths.
It teaches the value of religion, presenting it as a
duty to the Almighty.
RELIGION
A system of beliefs and practices based on faith or revelation
An organized church contributes to the teaching of ethics and
continues to enrich with its moral insights.
Religion provides both the direction and motivation for the moral
life of people.
While different religions give different emphasis to different moral
values, they coincide in their efforts to improve both man and
human society
ETHICS AND LAW








Ethics studies human motivation.
It goes deeper than the study of external actions.
It explores thoughts and feelings.
It requires that man desires that which is good and
act in accordance with that desire.
Law requires that we perform the required action
regardless of our feeling towards such action.
It concerned with the externality of the act.
Ethical norms cover thoughts and feelings.
Laws do not judge man’s thoughts and desires.
CONTINUE OF ETHICS AND LAW
Morality has a wider implication than a law,
because law can either be moral or immoral.
Thus what is legal is not necessarily moral; but what is moral is
necessarily worth legalizing.
Ethics is not simply a body of do’s and don’ts in the manner laws
are.
Ethics is personal commitment to uphold what is true and good.
Ethics aim to develop “right disposition and inner spirit” for
accepting what is lawful.
PROFESSIONAL ETHICS
The practice of a profession cannot be regulated entirely by
legislation.
Each profession therefore subscribes to a set of moral code.
Code of Ethics guides the actuation of a professional where the
law is silent or inadequate.
A code of Ethics implies that, before anything else, a
professional is a person who has the obligation to listen to
the “dictates of reason”. The need for it is obviously to the
advantage of the profession.
The Code of Ethics for Business proposed by the Bishops
Businessmen’s Conference for Human Development,
Philippines, provides:
Towards the Customers, business shall, in the
production of goods and services:
Strive after a quality that will enable them to
serve their purpose efficiently and effectively;
Avoid anything that would be detrimental to
the health, safety or growth of the proper user
or beneficiary of such goods and services;
And seek to apply or make use of the
discoveries and inventions of science with
adaptations that will improve their products or
services, thereby benefiting customers/users
increasingly their number.
CONTINUE OF PROFESSIONAL
ETHICS
In its marketing arrangement, business shall:

Deliver the product or service in the
quality, quantity, and time agreed upon,
and at a reasonable price, and avoid the
creation of artificial shortages, price
manipulation, and like practices;
Establish an after-sales and complaints service
commensurate to the kind of product or service
supplied and the prices paid;
 Ensure that all mass media, promotional, and
package communications be informative and
true, and take account the precepts of morality
and the sound cultural values of the
community, and manifest respect for human
dignity.

THE HUMAN ACTS
Human Acts
 Those actions which man performs knowingly,
freely, and voluntarily.
 Actions are the result of conscious knowledge
and are subject to the control of the will.
 Deliberate, intentional, or voluntary
ACTS OF MAN

Those actions which happen in man

They are instinctive and are not within the control of
the will

Actions are biological and physiological movements
in man such as metabolism, respiration, fear, anger,
love, and jealousy.
Essential Attributes
For an act to be considered a human act, it
must possess the following
characteristics:
It must be performed by a conscious agent who is aware
of what he is doing and of its consequences.
Children below the age of reason, the insane, and
the senile- are incapable of acting knowingly.
It must be performed by an agent who is acting freely,
that is by his own volition and powers. An action
done under duress and against one’s will is not
entirely a free action.
It must be performed by an agent who decides willfully to
perform the act. This willfulness is the resolve to
perform an act here and now, or in some future time.
KINDS OF HUMAN ACTS
Human acts are either elicited acts or
commanded acts. Elicited acts are those
performed by the will and are not bodily
externalized.
Paul Glenn enumerates the following
elicited acts:
1. Wish- is the tendency of will towards something, whether
this be realizable or not. It may include the impossible,
or that which is remotely possible, such as winning the
sweepstakes.
2. Intention- is the tendency of the will towards something
attainable but without necessarily committing oneself to
attain it. Such is our intention to study the lesson, to
attend a party, to spend a vacation in Baguio.
3. Consent- is the acceptance of the will of those needed
to carry out the intention. Thus, a woman is to show
consent when she consciously attracts attention to
herself.
4. Election- is the selection of the will of those means
effective enough to carry out the intention. A
salesman shows election shows when he opts to visit
a client instead just writing him a letter.
5. Use- is the command of the will to make use of those use
means elected to carry out the intention. It is this act of
the will which moves the salesman to dress up and take a
ride to see his client.
6. Fruition- is the enjoyment of the will derived from the
attainment of the thing he had desired earlier. The joy of
the woman on being complimented for her attractiveness,
or, the satisfaction of the salesman in closing a deal with
his client- is fruition.
COMMANDED ACTS
-are those done either by man’s mental or bodily powers under
the command of the will.
-can either be internal or external actions.
Examples of Internal Actions
-conscious reasoning
-recalling something
-encouraging oneself
-controlling aroused emotions and others
EXAMPLES OF EXTERNAL ACTIONS
-walking, eating, dancing, laughing, listening,
reading and others.
Actions that are combinations of internal and
external movements:
-listening, studying, reading, driving a car, writing
a letter , or playing chess.
MORAL DISTINCTION

Human Acts may either be in conformity or not with the
dictates of reason.
“Dictates of Reason”
 refers to the shared consciousness of prudent people about
the propriety of a certain action or manner of behavior.

It shows what is permissible in a given situation, the best
option as a matter of fact.

stands for the norm of morality which is the standard by
which actions are judged as to their merits or demerits.
Actions are classified into moral, immoral or amoral
based on their relation to the norm of morality
•
Moral Actions- actions which are in conformity with the
norm of morality.
- They are good actions and are permissible
Examples: working, studying, paying debt, telling truth,
loving a friend
• Immoral Actions- actions which are not in conformity with
the norm of morality.
-They are bad or evil and are not permissible.
Examples: Refusing to help the needy, committing murder,
adultery, stealing, telling lies.
•

A moral actions- actions which stand neutral in relation to the
norm of morality.
-They are neither good nor bad in themselves.
Example: playing basketball is an amoral act, but playing
basketball when one is supposed to be attending a class is
wrong. Playing basketball out of sense of duty to the team is
good.
Extrinsic and Intrinsic Evil
The relation of actions to the norm of morality is
either intrinsic or extrinsic.
Something is intrinsic to a thing when it is
integral to the nature of that thing.
Example: the sweetness of a mango fruit is
intrinsic to it.
But the appeal of a mango to a particular
person is extrinsic to it, that is, such quality is not
an integral element of it as fruit.
Some actions are intrinsically evil because their
nature is defective either by excess or by lack of
certain attributes.
Example: the nature of stealing which, by
nature, manifests lack of respect for the property of
another.
Some actions are extrinsically evil because certain
factors attached to them by way of circumstances
render them opposed to the norm of morality.
Example: Drinking liquor is extrinsically evil
when done in excess.
Imputability of Human Acts
Human Acts- done by a person who is in control of his
faculties: intellect and will. A person is like a captain of a
ship who assumes full responsibility and accountability for
his decisions.
Imputability of a human act means that the person
performing the act is liable for such act. It involves the
notion of guilt or innocence. Actions are either
praiseworthy or blameworthy. Actions are attributed to the
doer as their principal cause.
Actions that are intrinsically evil are prohibited
at all times and under any circumstance.
Actions that are extrinsically evil may be tolerated
provided the circumstance rendering it to be wrong is
first removed.
Example: Suicide is intrinsically evil and
remains immoral whatever is its justification.
Therapeutic abortion is extrinsically evil when it is
resorted to as a necessary means to safeguard the
life of the mother.
Sanctions and Penalties
Imputability- implies that the doer is either
deserving of reward or punishment. This is a basic
requirement of justice.
The penal laws of our country provide for a system
of punishment for crimes, ranging from simple fines
to imprisonment. The capital punishment, that, is
death penalty, is reserved for “heinous crimes”
Immoralities are not given corresponding legal punishments
such as fines or imprisonment. The Bible, however, speaks
of death as the punishment for ‘sins’. Though the Old
Testament interpret this as death by execution, it refers
more to a spiritual death or suffering.
A form of a spiritual death is the loss of peace of mind, the
only genuine happiness possible in this life.
Voluntariness
•comes from Latin word “voluntas” referring to the Will.
•essential to an act, without it an act is a mere act of man
1.
Perfect voluntariness- is present in a person who fully knows
and fully intends an act.
Ex. A man who, wanting to get even takes a gun and shoots his
enemy is said to be acting with perfect voluntariness.
2.
Imperfect voluntariness- is present in a person who acts
without fully realizing what he means to do, or without fully
intending the act.
Ex. A man might act irrationally without fully realizing what he is
doing; or, a woman in terror, might jump out of a window
without fully intending to kill herself.
3.
Conditional voluntariness- is present who is forced by
circumstances beyond his control to perform an act which he
would not do under normal conditions.
Ex. A child who is intimidated by his mother to study the lesson is
acting with conditional voluntariness.
4.
Simple voluntariness- is present in a person doing an act
willfully, regardless of whether he likes to do it or not. It is
either positive or negative.
Ex. It is positive when act requires the performance of an activity,
such as polishing the floor, paying rent, or playing tennis.
It is negative when an act requires the omission of activity,
such as not taking prohibited drugs, remaining quiet, or not
listening to the radio.
Types of Voluntariness
1.
Direct voluntariness- accompanies an act which is
primarily intended by the doer, either as an end in
itself or as a means to achieve something else.
Ex. Eating lunch is carried on with direct voluntariness.
Going to school, inviting a friend to a movie, reading a
book, or writing a note.
2.
Indirect voluntariness- accompanies an act or
situation which is the mere result of a directly willed
act.
Ex. Getting a failing mark is indirectly voluntary on the
part of the student who has willingly neglected to
study.
Indirectly Voluntary
A person is accountable for his actions and
their consequences. But is he also accountable for
results not directly intended?
Paul Glenn considers a person accountable for
indirectly voluntary results of his acts when:
1. The doer is able to foresee the evil results or
effect, at least, in a general way;
2. The doer is free to refrain from doing that which
would produce the foreseen evil;
3. The doer is a moral obligation not to do that
which would produces an evil effect; (Ibid.18-19)
Alfredo Panizo cites these principles;
1. A person is held morally responsible for any evil
effect which flow from the action itself directly
and necessarily as a natural consequence,
though the evil effect not directly willed or
intended.
2. A human act from which two effect may result,
one good and one evil, is morally permissible
under four conditions. If any of these conditions
is violated, then the action is not justifiable and
should not be done.
These four conditions are:
•The action which produces double effect s
must be good in itself, or at least morally
indifferent.
•The good effect must not come from evil
effect. To do evil in order to achieve
something good is not justified.
•The motive or the doer must be towards the
attainment of the good. The evil effect is
permitted only as an incidental result.
•The good effect must outweigh the evil
result in its importance.
This principles and conditions find application in the so
called “therapeutic abortion” where the direct intention
is the saving of the mother’s life with the incidental
result of aborting the fetus.
3 the modifiers of human acts
The ideal is for man to act deliberately,
that is, with perfect voluntariness. This is
not always possible though. Oftentimes, a
certain degree of doubt or reluctance
accompanies an act. At other times,
emotions hold sway, propelling action
with the swiftness of an impulse.
Factors that influence man’s inner disposition towards
certain actions are called”modifiers” of human acts.
They affect the mental or emotional state of a person to
the extent that the voluntariness involved in an act is
either increased or decreased. This is significant because
the accountability of the act is correspondingly
increased or decreased.
We cite this principle: the greater the knowledge and the
freedom, the greater the voluntariness and the moral
responsibility. (Panizo: 38)
The Modifiers
Man does not act in a vacuum. He is an organism
responding and reacting to stimulus. His total make-up is the
sum of all experiences. His personal background, education,
social upbringing, political persuasion, religion, and personal
aims – contribute largely to his development and behavioral
preferences.
Author point to the following as modifiers of human acts:
•Ignorance
•Passions
•Fear
•Violence
•Habit
There are other modifier which is worth discussing
but for the limitation of this book such as
hypnoticism, brainwashing, mental conditioning,
and cultural imposition.
Ignorance
We are familiar with the saying:”Ignorance of
law excuses no one”. This implies that one
should not act in the state of ignorance and that
one who has done a wrong may not claim
ignorance as a defense.
Ignorance is the absence of knowledge which a
person ought to posses.
Ignorance can be: vincible or invincible
•Vincible
Ignorance: easily be reminded through
ordinary diligence and reasonable efforts.
Ex. Ignorance of visitor regarding
particular address vincible, he can easily ask
information from the policeman.
•Invincible
Ignorance: person possess without
being aware of it, lacks the means to rectify it.
Ex. Ignorance from missing person/object
Cook unaware of food he is serving is
contaminated
•Affected
Ignorance: Under vincible
A person keeps by positive efforts in
order to escape responsibility or blame.
Ex. Employee refuses to read a memo precisely so
that he may be exempted from its requirements.
PASSION





Concupiscence, tendencies towards desirable objects,
tendencies away from desirable/ harmful things
Antecedent-precede an act
Ex. Numerous lengthy phone call
Consequent-intentionally aroused and kept.
Ex. Young man deliberately arouse himself sexually by
reading pornographic magazine.
Fear
Disturbance of mind of a person who is
confronted by an impending danger or harm
to himself or loved ones.
Violence
Any physical force exerted on a person by
another free agent for the purpose of
compelling said person to act against his
will.

HABITS
Born of frequently repeated acts, for acting
in a certain manner.
Acquired inclinations towards something to
be done
Habit-forming: use to refer to certain
experience shows how easy it is for one to
acquire a habit.
ACTION AND EMOTION
Man does not act without feeling of
emotions.

Emotions are generally instinctive in
origin

Neither the degree of their intensity,
clarity or awareness makes them human
acts to be judged as good or evil.

REFINEMENT OF EMOTIONS

Ethics deals with emotions as factors
affecting human motivation and behavior

Refinement- man is expected to act not only
with his mind and body, but precisely with his
heart and soul.
KAGANDAHAN NG LOOB

Refers to attitude

Kabaitan- all that is good in human being
Ex. Mapagmahal, matulungin, maunawain
THE ENDS OF HUMAN ACTS

End- purpose of goal of an act

2 distinction: end of act

end of doer

End of Act-natural terminal of an activity
Ex. End of eating-nourishment
Reading-comprehension
Jogging- physical exercise
End of Doer- personal purpose intended by the
person performing the act.
Ex. Eat-to satisfy hunger
Reader- relax himself
Basketball player-win the game

KINDS OF ENDS
The end of the doer is either
 Proximate/
Remote End
 Intermediate / Ultimate End

Proximate End- the purpose which a doer
wishes to accomplish immediately by his
action
Ex. Proximate end - eating: satisfaction of
hunger

Remote End- which a doer wishes to
accomplish in a series of acts

Remote end
- promotion of health

Ultimate End- desired for its own sake and not
because of something else.
Ex. Ultimate End -graduation
Intermediate End- is the purpose of which is
desired as a means for obtaining another thing
Ex. Intermediate End -consists of those activities
towards graduation

Attending classes
Taking exam
Participating in recitation.
THE MEANING OF GOOD
Aristotle- the good man is that which fits his
function as a rational being.
-the good of man proves to be activity of
soul in conformity with excellence
Needs
- these are goods that an individual
requires because of his particular
circumstance in life.
ESSENTIAL AND ACCIDENTAL

Essential good- Perfective, contribute integral
perfections of man

Accidental good- Non-perfective, external
worth/ appearance
Example:
 Essential: food, shelter, health, knowledge, virtue, life
 Accidental: money, power, luxury, good name
REAL AND APPARENT
Real good- intrinsic value/ value
 Apparent good- evil thing but viewed as good

Example:
 Real Good: habits, parents and parenthood, pleasure and
joy
 Apparent good: diseases, sadness, death, worry, crimes
PERFECTIVE AND NON-PERFECTIVE GOOD
Perfective Good- contributes to the integral
perfection of a person
 Non-Perfective Good- contributes to the
external appearance or convenience of a
person




Example:
Perfective Good: education, virtue, exercise, medicine
Non-Perfective Good- clothes, wealth, social status
PERFECT AND IMPERFECT GOOD
Perfect Good- fullness of qualities enabling it to
fully satisfy human desire
 Imperfect Good- possess only certain qualities
so that it does not fully satisfy human desire.




Example:
Perfect Goods: God
Imperfect Goods: earthly goods
THE GREATEST GOOD

Happiness- greatest good
-what man aims to achieve in all his activities
- ultimate purpose in life is the attainment of
happiness
NATURAL AND SUPERNATURAL
HAPPINESS

Natural Happiness- attainable by man through the use
of his natural powers.

Supernatural Happiness- attainable by man through
the use of his natural powers as these are informed
and aided by God’s infusion of grace

Ex. Natural Happiness: intellect, will, internal and external
sensory powers, nutrition, growth