Crisis and Emergency
Risk Communication
Guatemala City, Guatemala
March 2014
Risk Communication vs
Emergency Communication
 During emergencies public health responders must
effectively ensure the following types of communication
– Institutional
 Intra-inter-agencies/institutions, across levels
 Inter-sectorial
– Operational
 To health care workers and respondents (e.g.
alerts, guidance documents
 To ensure the coordination of the response
– To the public (risk communication)
Health crisis are unique
• Extremely time pressuring
• Unpredictable & unfolding
• Socially and economically
disruptive
• Behaviour–centred &
anxiety generator
• Involving multiple
stakeholders
• Shifting from national to
international
Communicating during crisis is a capacity
requirement under the IHR
Under the IHR, risk communication
includes a range of interventions
through preparedness, response and
recovery of a health crisis for
• informed decisions
• positive behaviour interventions
• maintenance of trust
to minimize its public health impact.
Risk Communication Working Group, March 2009, Lyon
Risk assessment
Risk perception
Risk communication
Risk management
Do we have a shared understanding of
‘risk communication’?
Risk Communication – Outbreak Communication – Crisis Communication – Emergency Communication Information – Education - Communication – Public Awareness – Public Education – Social
Mobilization – Community Mobilization – Advocacy – Information Officer – Media Officer –
Communication Officer – Reporting Officer – Advocacy Officer - Development Support Communication
– Pandemic Communication – Animal Health Communication – Human Health Communication –
Media Relations – Donor Relations – Corporate Relations – External Relations – Public Relations Risk Communication – Outbreak Communication – Crisis Communication – Emergency
Communication - Behaviour Change Communication – Development Communication – Participatory
Communication – Programme Communication – Information – Education - Communication – Public
Awareness – Public Education – Social Mobilization – Community Mobilization – Advocacy –
Information Officer – Media Officer – Communication Officer – Reporting Officer – Advocacy Officer Development Support Communication – Pandemic Communication – Animal Health Communication –
Human Health Communication – Media Relations – Donor Relations – Corporate Relations – External
Relations – Public Relations - Risk Communication – Outbreak Communication – Behaviour Change
Communication – Development Communication – Participatory Communication – Programme
Communication – Information – Education - Risk Communication – Outbreak Communication – Crisis
Communication – Emergency Communication - Behaviour Change Communication – Development
Communication – Participatory Communication – Programme Communication – Information –
Education - Communication – Public Awareness – Public Education – Social Mobilization –
Community Mobilization - Risk Communication – Outbreak Communication – Crisis Communication –
Emergency Communication - Behaviour Change Communication
Event management cycle
WHO believes that it is
high time to acknowledge
crisis communication
as essential to outbreak
control as epidemiological
training and laboratory
analysis.
Event
detection
Risk assessment
Crisis
communication
WHO crisis communication guidance started in 2004
• Expert consultation on Outbreak
Communication (2004)
• WHO evidence-based
communication guidance (2004)
• Outbreak Communication
Planning Guide (2008)
• Communication for behavioural
impact (COMBI) (2012)
Literature & field experience
« The overriding goal
for outbreak
communication is to
communicate with
the public in ways
that build, maintain or
restore Trust »
WHO Outbreak Communication Guidelines
Trust is the public perception of
Your motives
Your honesty
Your skills
Are the risk
managers acting
to safeguard my
health?
Are the risk
managers
holding back
information?
Are the risk
managers
skilled enough
to do the job?
Trust is the pillar of outbreak
control
« …the less people trust those
who are supposed to protect
them, the more afraid the public
will be and less likely they will be
to conform their choices and
behavior with outbreak
management instructions ».
WHO Outbreak Communication Guidelines
Building trust is also an internal process
Trust is essential between
•
communicators and policy
makers;
•
communicators and
technical responders.
Trust
Policy makers
The internal trust relationship is the
“Trust Triangle”
Crisis Communication - Core Capacity
Components
2. Public communication
coordination
1. Transparency and early
announcement of a real or
potential risk
PLANNING
4. Listening
through dialogue
3. Information
dissemination including
media relations
1. Transparency and Early
announcement of a real or
potential risk
 Those at real or potential risk can protect themselves;
 Trust between authorities populations and partners is
maintained and strengthened.
2. Public communication
coordination
 Existing public communication
resources are used;
 Messages are coordinated
and confusion and overlap are
reduced;
 Reach and influence of
provided advice are
strengthened.
3. Information dissemination
including Media relations
Rapid and effective dissemination of information is crucial
during health crisis and mass media are the pillar of it.
Not only media!
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Health care workers;
Local and religious leaders;
Citizens’ representatives;
SMS
Social media;
Internet;
Toll-free telephone numbers;
Door-to-door visits
4. Listening through dialogue
 Community perceptions
of risks are understood;
 Adaptations to
messages, materials and
strategies are made;
 Effectiveness of
communication efforts is
ensured to support
sound decision making.
If crisis are difficult to predict, an outbreak
communication strategy can be planned
1. Assessment
2. Coordination
3. Transparency
People respond to
what outberak
controllers do, not just
to what they say.
4. Listening
5. Communication evaluation
6. Emergency communication plan
7. Training
Crisis communication
must be integrated in
risk management form
the start.
Crisis Communication Lifecycle
•
•
•
•
•
PreCrisis
•
•
•
•
Explain
about risks
Inform
Establish credibility
Guide action
Commit to communication
Maintenance
Initial
Prepare
Make alliances
Agree on recommendations
Test messages
•
•
•
•
•
• Educate for future response
• Individual action
• Support for relevant policies
• Promote agency activities
Resolution
Foster understanding of risks
Provide background
Foster support for plans
Listen
Empower
Evaluation
• Evaluate plan
• Lessons learned
• Identify
improvement
Communication planning allows decision making
1. What is the situation?
Evaluate the situation in context and time
2. Why communicate?
Set objectives
3. To whom?
Define target audience(s)
4. How?
Outline strategy, channels and tools
5. When?
Draw a timeline of action
6. Who?
Identify roles and partners
7. With what?
List human and economic resources
8. How is it going on?
Monitor communication impact
9. How effective?
Adjust the communication strategy
Gaps and challenges
(from experience and feedback)
 General devaluation of communication, not seen as a science;
 Disconnect between technical and communication responders;
 Low recognition of crisis communication capacity needs
before a crisis starts;
 Perception of crisis communication as an “add-on” not integrated
in planning processes;
 Limited financial and human resources dedicated to
communication planning;
 Unsuitability of planned procedures due to other sectors’
involvement and/or lead taken by the highest government’s level.
Crisis communication is designed for
health crisis
• Extremely time pressuring
Information dissemination
• Unpredictable & unfolding
Dealing with uncertainty
• Socially and economically
disruptive
Coordination - Listening
• Behaviour–centred &
anxiety generator
Listening
• Involving multiple
stakeholders
Coordination
• Shifting from national to
international
Coordination
Crisis Communication Resources
•
WHO Outbreak Communication Guidelines (2005)
www.who.int/infectious-disease-news/IDdocs/whocds200528/whocds200528en.pdf
•
WHO Outbreak Communication Planning Guide (2008)
www.who.int/ihr/elibrary/WHOOutbreakCommsPlanngGuide.pdf
•
WHO Communication for behavioural Impact (2012)
http://www.who.int/ihr/publications/combi_toolkit_fieldwkbk_outbreaks/en/
•
CDC Crisis and Emergency Risk Communication Manual
http://emergency.cdc.gov/CERC/
•
PAHO Risk and Outbreak Communication
http://new.paho.org/hq/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1940&Itemid
=1923&lang=en
Crisis Communication Lifecycle
•
•
•
•
•
PreCrisis
•
•
•
•
Explain
about risks
Inform
Establish credibility
Guide action
Commit to communication
Maintenance
Initial
Prepare
Make alliances
Agree on recommendations
Test messages
•
•
•
•
•
• Educate for future response
• Individual action
• Support for relevant policies
• Promote agency activities
Resolution
Foster understanding of risks
Provide background
Foster support for plans
Listen
Empower
Evaluation
• Evaluate plan
• Lessons learned
• Identify
improvement
What the public seeks from
your communication
5 public concerns. . .
1. Gain wanted facts
2. Empower decisionmaking
3. Involved as a participant, not spectator
4. Provide watchguard over resource allocation
5. Recover or preserve well-being and normalcy
Crisis and Emergency Risk
Communication impacts
5 organizational concerns -- you need to. . .
1. Execute response and recovery efforts
2. Decrease illness, injury, and deaths
3. Avoid misallocation of limited resources
4. Reduce rumors surrounding recovery
5. Avoid wasting resources
5 communication failures that
kill operational success
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Mixed messages from multiple experts
Information released late
Paternalistic attitudes
Not countering rumors and myths in real-time
Public power struggles and confusion
5 communication steps that
boost operational success
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Execute a solid communication plan
Be the first source for information
Express empathy early
Show competence and expertise
Remain honest and open
Psychology
of a Crisis
What Do People Feel Inside When
a Disaster Looms or Occurs?
Psychological barriers:
1. Denial
2. Fear, anxiety, confusion, dread
3. Hopelessness or helplessness
4. Seldom panic
Individuals at risk—the cost?
 Demands for unneeded treatment
 Dependence on special relationships (bribery)
 MUPS—Multiple Unexplained Physical
Symptoms
 Self-destructive behaviors
 Stigmatization
Communicating in
a Crisis Is Different
 Public must feel empowered – reduce fear and
victimization
 Mental preparation reduces anxiety
 Taking action reduces anxiety
 Uncertainty must be addressed
Decisionmaking in
a Crisis Is Different
 People simplify
 Cling to current beliefs
 We remember what we see or previously
experience (first messages carry more weight)
 People limit intake of new information (3-7 bits)
How Do We Communicate
About Risk in an Emergency?
All risks are not accepted equally
 Voluntary vs. involuntary
 Controlled personally vs. controlled by others
 Familiar vs. exotic
 Natural vs. manmade
 Reversible vs. permanent
 Statistical vs. anecdotal
 Fairly vs. unfairly distributed
 Affecting adults vs. affecting children
Be Careful With Risk
Comparisons
 Are they similarly accepted based on
– high/low hazard (scientific/technical measure)
– high/low outrage (emotional measure)
A. High hazard
B. High outrage
C. Low hazard
D. Low outrage
Risk Acceptance Examples
 Dying by falling coconut or dying by shark
– Natural vs. manmade
– Fairly vs. unfairly distributed
– Familiar vs. exotic
– Controlled by self vs. outside control of self
Emergency Risk
Communication Principles





Don’t overreassure
Acknowledge that there is a process in place
Express wishes
Give people things to do
Ask more of people
Risk Communication
Principles for Emergencies
When the news is good, state continued
concern before stating reassuring updates
“Although we’re not out of the woods yet, we
have seen a declining number of cases each
day this week.”
“Although the fires could still be a threat, we
have them 85% contained.”
Risk Communication
Principles for Emergencies
Under promise and over deliver . . .
Instead of making promises about
outcomes, express the uncertainty of
the situation and a confident belief in
the “process” to fix the problem and
address public safety concerns.
Risk Communication
Principles for Emergencies
Allow people the right to feel fear
 Don’t pretend they’re not afraid, and don’t tell
them they shouldn’t be.
 Acknowledge the fear, and give contextual
information.
Six Principles
 Be First: If the information is yours to provide by
organizational authority—do so as soon as possible. If
you can’t—then explain how you are working to get it.
 Be Right: Give facts in increments. Tell people what
you know when you know it, tell them what you don’t
know, and tell them if you will know relevant information
later.
 Be Credible: Tell the truth. Do not withhold to avoid
embarrassment or the possible “panic” that seldom
happens. Uncertainty is worse than not knowing—rumors
are more damaging than hard truths.
Six Principles
 Express Empathy: Acknowledge in words what
people are feeling—it builds trust.
 Promote Action: Give people things to do. It calms
anxiety and helps restore order.
 Show Respect: Treat people the way you want to be
treated—the way you want your loved ones treated—
always—even when hard decisions must be
communicated.
Stigmatization
Why people stigmatize
 Shortcut when uncertainty and threat are both
present to protect against physical and
emotional harm
 Occurs in a social context
 Expect it early in a severe influenza pandemic
unless dominant group first to become ill
The toll of stigmatization
 Emotional pain (e.g., stress & anxiety)
 Limited access to health care, education,
housing, and employment
 Physical violence
 Affects minority groups differently
 Potential for group conflict (i.e., a group-level
ethnocentric worldview)
Role for communication
 Communication must balance the real risk with
needless association of an identifiable group
 Take an active role in dispelling misperceptions
 Correct faulty assumptions
Steps before, during & after
 Avoid geographic links if not necessary (e.g.,
Spanish pandemic versus 1918 pandemic)
 Avoid visuals that link group to threat--watch out
for subconscious links: Avian Influenza H5N1




Teach response professionals about stigma
Share with media the concern
Scan for stigma and confront quickly
Watch out when creating historical products
Understanding
loss and
bereavement
Grief and mourning





The circumstances of the death
Nature of the relationship to deceased
Prior loss experience
Secondary losses
Grieving is done in a cultural context
Severe outbreak and loss




Multiple deaths in families
Truncated bereavement rituals
Potential for kinship from shared misery
Responders could feel guilt
Compassion in communication
 People will expect demographic details of first
deaths (“How do I compare?”)
 Look of official reports must be respectful (web)
 Responders may be losing members too
 People mourn financial loss too
Theories of grief & mourning
 Dual process model (loss-oriented vs
restoration-oriented
 Integrative model—family oriented
 Death of a child (“Parents expect to see their
children grow and mature”)
 Disenfranchised grief
Cultural differences
 Acceptance versus avoidance
 U.S. dominant group culture
– Little interaction with death/dying
– Care ends at gravesite ceremony
– No transition period from life to death
– Death is failure, to be avoided
Dominant group expectations
 Rational is more important than emotion
 Move to restoration orientation quickly
 Rituals not important
 Understanding bereavement rituals of host
culture is important—South American Wari tribe
Cultural differences?
 Have you been to a funeral outside your own
culture? What is the color of mourning?
 What matters matters a lot
 Acculturation attenuates differences—don’t
stereotype
 Religious difference are cultural differences
 Bereavement ignored will cost in
personal/community resilience
Messages and
Audiences
The STARCC Principle
Your public messages in a crisis must be:
Simple
Timely
Accurate
Relevant
Credible
Consistent
What the Public Will Ask First





Are my family and I safe?
What have you found that may affect me?
What can I do to protect myself and my family?
Who caused this?
Can you fix it?
What the Media Will Ask First








What happened?
Who is in charge?
Has this been contained?
Are victims being helped?
What can we expect?
What should we do?
Why did this happen?
Did you have forewarning?
Judging the Message
 Speed counts – marker for preparedness
 Facts – consistency is vital
 Trusted source – can’t fake these
Match Audiences and
Concerns
Audiences
Concerns





 Opportunity to express
concern
 Personal safety
 Resources for response
 Loss of revenue/liability
 Speed of information flow
 Anticipatory guidance
 Family’s safety
Victims and their families
Politicians
First responders
Trade and industry
Community far outside
disaster
 Media
Perceptions of government
 Wide range from distrust to confidence
 Government withholds information
 Importance of local health and elected
authorities
 Government should operate with complete
openness and disclosure
Emergency Information





Any information is empowering
Benefit from substantive action steps
Plain English
Illustrations and color
Source identification
Accuracy of
Information
__________
Speed of
Release
Empathy
+
Openness
CREDIBILITY
Successful
=
+
Communication
TRUST
Initial Message
Must
 Be short
 Be relevant
 Give positive action steps
 Be repeated
Initial Message
Must Not
 Use jargon
 Be judgmental
 Make promises that can’t be kept
 Include humor
Writing for the Media
During a Crisis
 The pressure will be tremendous from all
quarters.
 It must be fast and accurate.
 It’s like cooking a turkey when people are
starving.
 If information isn’t finalized, explain the process.
International Crises
& Cultural
Competence
Communication assumptions
 Job to prevent illness or death, restore or
maintain calm, engender confidence in response
 Emergencies are chaotic so roles should be
simplified
 Confusion is reduced with fast, relevant, simple
and consistent messages
 Communication resources will be limited
What we know
 The more the public knows about our efforts to
openly share information, the more they trust us
 Messages are judged based on trustworthiness
 Some differences don’t matter, some do
Differences that matter
 Role of culture
– All individuals like no other (individual)
– All individuals like some others (culture)
– All individuals like all others (homo sapiens)
 Collectivism and Individualism (in-group versus
out-group)
 Cultural beliefs held more strongly during crisis
 Communication styles differ by culture
Let’s discuss what culture is
 Countless value, languages, customs, ethics . .
 Culture-general knowledge and culture-specific
knowledge
 Example: culture general—enter new culture
look for differences in: authority, delegation,
etiquette, communication styles
 Example: culture specific—know the specifics of
a culture as it compares to your own
Value of cultural competence
 Reduces ethnocentric thinking and behavior
(adaptability in crisis is a strength)
 Trust builds more quickly
 Beware of cultural “gotchas” in self and others
Quick exercise: How cultures
differ
• Crowd or audience
behaviors
• How often we smile or
to whom
• How we see old age
• How open or guarded
we are with information
• What is or is not ethical
behavior
• Importance of
competition
 How time is understood and
used
 The importance of harmony
in a group
 What’s polite or impolite
 If, how and when we touch
each other
 What is beautiful or ugly
 What we believe we need
or don’t need
Cultural Conflict
 Cultural conflict dimensions. content and
relational all have, cultural conflict adds the third
one--"a clash of cultural values."
 Acknowledge conflict contains a cultural
dimension
 Understanding your own culture and developing
cultural awareness by acquiring a broad
knowledge of values and beliefs of other
cultures
Cultural communication styles
 Communication occurs when sender’s message
is received
 Messages that do not challenge cultural beliefs
will be more easily received
Stakeholder/
Partner
Communication
Stakeholder/Partner
Communication
 Stakeholders have a special connection to you
and your involvement in the emergency.
 They are interested in how the incident will
impact them.
 Partners have a working relationship to you and
collaborate in an official capacity on the
emergency issue or other issues.
 They are interested in fulfilling their role in the
incident and staying informed.
Stakeholders can be . . .
 Advocate–maintain loyalty
 Adversary–discourage negative action
 Ambivalent–keep neutral or move to advocate
Sources of Social Pressure




What will I gain?
What will it cost me?
What do those important to me want me to do?
Can I actually carry it out?
Trust and Mistrust
 Stakeholders judge the response to an issue or
crisis based on trust
 Trust is the natural consequence of promises
fulfilled
 Mistrust is an outgrowth of the perception that
promises were broken and values violated
 CDC fulfills trust by combining our best science
with strong ethics and values
Consequences of mistrust
 Health recommendations ignored and disease
and death go up
 Demands for misallocation of resources
 Public health policies circumvented
 Opportunists prey on others in the “trust gap”
 Fiscal and medical resources are wasted
We can’t accomplish our mission
Causes of conflict:
perception by either party of





Superiority
Injustice
Distrust
Vulnerability
Helplessness
Egregious Mistakes








Deny the problem exists
Shoot the messenger
Respond with silence
Respond with evasion/half truths
Selectively tell the story
Overtell the story
Take an “I” perspective
Point fingers
Why do people come to the
town hall?
Then why do we conduct meetings the
way we do?
Convening a Citizen’s Forum





Acknowledge concerns
Encourage fact-finding
Share power
Act trustworthy
Offer contingent commitments
Empower Group
Decisionmaking





Identify alternatives
Analyze alternatives
Present all scientific information
Choose “want” versus “must” criteria
Reach a clear, justifiable decision
Don’t lecture at the Townhall
 Easy but not effective
 Doesn’t change thoughts/behaviors
 Key: don’t give a solution, rather help audience
discover solution by asking questions
Dealing With Angry People
Anger arises when people. . .
 Have been hurt
 Feel threatened by risks out of their control
 Are not respected
 Have their fundamental beliefs challenged
Sometimes, anger arises when . . .
 Media arrive
 Damages may be in play
High-Outrage Public
Meetings
“Do’s”
 The best way to deal with criticism and outrage
by an audience is to acknowledge that it exists.
(Don’t say, “I know how you feel.”)
 Practice active listening and try to avoid
interrupting.
 State the problem and then the recommendation.
High-Outrage Public
Meetings
“Don’ts”
 Don’t take personal abuse. You represent your
agency and you are not alone. Bring along a
neutral third party who can step in and diffuse
the situation.
 Don’t look for one answer that fits all and don’t
promise what you can’t deliver.
Acting Trustworthy




Share information early
Acknowledge the concerns of others
Under-promise and over-deliver
Select a spokesperson who is never
condescending
 Use third-party validators/advocates
Stakeholder Preplanning





Do an assessment
Identify stakeholders
Query stakeholders
Prioritize by relationship to incident
Determine level of “touch”
Responding to Stakeholders






Standby statement
Reaction action plan
Web page for partners
Conference call
Meet face-to-face
Commit to a schedule of updates
Gaining Acceptance
 Accumulate “yeses”
 Don’t say “but”—say “yes, and”
Risk Communications Plan
Create and update your plan






Integrate into overall emergency response plan
Endorsed by higher-ups
Input from stakeholders
Coordinate with partners
Longer is not better
Practice, practice, practice
10 Steps for Success
1. Obtain signed endorsement from leadership
2. Designate responsibilities for media, public, social media, and partner
teams
3. Verify clearance/approval procedures
4. Establish agreements on who releases what, when, and how
5. Maintain current staff, partner and media contact lists (including after-hours
contacts)
6. Build relationships with partners and media
7. Establish procedures to coordinate with other response teams
8. Designate spokespersons for public health issues
9. Have agreements and procedures to join the joint information center of the
emergency operations center
10. Develop procedures to secure needed resources (space, equipment,
people)
Applying the Plan
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Verify the situation
Notify others
Conduct crisis assessment
Organize assignments quickly
Prepare information and obtain approvals
Release information through prearranged channels
Obtain feedback and conduct evaluation
Conduct public education
Monitor events
Social Media:
Crisis Role
Sources of Social Pressure




What will I gain?
What will it cost me?
What do those important to me want me to do?
Can I actually carry it out?
CDC: Why social media in a
crisis
 Need to be where people are
 Leverage unique characteristics of emerging
channels
 Tailored health messages
 Facilitates interactive communication and
community
 Empowers people in making health decisions
CDC Audiences Use Social
Media
 Those who use social media on CDC.gov:
– Have higher satisfaction ratings (84 out of
100) than those who do not use CDC social
media tools (79 out of 100)
– Are more likely to return and recommend the
site to others than those who do not use CDC
social media tools
– Rate CDC as more trustworthy that those
who do not use CDC’s social media tools
Trust, transparency &
participation in government
 Pilot to measure TTP in government
 CDC scored higher than other Fed agencies/benchmark
 Largest difference for collaboration online
Participant
CDC
Total
Difference
Online
73
participation
Collaboration 80
65
8
68
12
Trust
81
6
87
www.cdc.gov/socialmedia
Working With
the Media
Disasters Are Media Events
 We need the media to be there.
 Give important protective actions for the public.
 Know how to reach their audiences and what
their audiences need.
Response Officials Should
 Understand that their job is not the media’s job
 Know that they can’t dismiss media when they’re
inconvenient
 Accept that the media will be involved in the
response, and plan accordingly
Response Officials Should
 Attempt to provide all media equal access
 Use technology to fairly distribute information
 Plan to precredential media for access to
EOC/JOC or JIC
 Think consistent messages
Response Officials
Should Not
 Hold grudges
 Discount local media
 Tell the media what to do
How To Work With Reporters
 Reporters want a front seat to the action and all
information NOW.
 Preparation will save relationships.
 If you don’t have the facts, tell them the process.
 Reality Check: 70,000 media outlets in U.S.
Media cover the news 24/7.
Media, Too, Are Affected
by Crises
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Verification
Adversarial role
National dominance
Lack of scientific expertise
Command Post
 Media will expect a command post. Official
channels that work well will discourage reliance
on nonofficial channels.
 Be media-friendly at the command post—
prepare for them to be on site.
Spokesperson
Role of a Spokesperson
in an Emergency
 Take your organization from an “it” to a “we”
 Build trust and credibility for the organization
 Remove the psychological barriers within the
audience
 Gain support for the public health response
 Ultimately, reduce the incidence of illness, injury,
and death by getting it right
Pitfalls for Spokespersons
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Use of jargon
Humor
Repeating the negative
Expressing personal opinions
Showing off your vocabulary
Spokesperson
 How to be an effective and trusted
spokesperson in 5 minutes of less
Great Spokesperson Step 1
 It’s more than “acting natural.” Every
organization has an identity. Try to embody that
identity.
 Example: CDC has a history of going into harm’s
way to help people. We humbly go where we are
asked. We value our partners and won’t steal the
show. Therefore, a spokesperson would express
a desire to help, show courage, and express the
value of partners. “Committed but not showy.”
Great Spokesperson Step 2
 Know your audience
 Your audience is NOT the reporter interviewing
you