Organizational Behavior &
Leadership

• Pre-Scientific Pre – 1880s
• Focus –
– Basic principles for nature and society
– Position of authority and order
– Economic Rationale
– Early development of division of labor

• Jethro – Moses’ father-in-law
– Gave advice to Moses regarding authority over the tribes of Israel
• Sun tzu – Wrote “The Art of War” 500BC
– Recognizes need for hierarchy, communications, and planning
• Aristotle 360 BC – Socrates 44 BC
– Management related to cultural environment
• Xenophon 370 BC – Division of labor
• Machiavelli – Unity of command and leadership
• Adam Smith – Factory system & Division of Labor

• Work – Accomplished by slaves and lower level classes of people
• Elite ruled according to traditions

• Scientific Management
• Administrative school
• Structuralist school

• Focus
• Scientific Management
– Organizing, managing, effective, efficient
• Administrative school
– Basic functions of managers
• Structuralist school
– Characteristics of the ideal type of an organization

• Scholars
• Scientific Management
– Frederick Taylor
– work measurement
– Best way to do a job
– Selection of individuals for the position
– Financial incentives

• Scholars
• Administrative school
– Henry Fayol
– Planning
– Organizing
– Commanding
– Coordinating
– Controlling

• Scholars
• Structuralist school
– Max Weber
– Bureaucratic Model
• Order via rules, procedures, authority, division of labor, functional specialization, well-defined hierarchy, differentiation of organizational functions, uniformity, and consistency

The Neoclassical Era 1830s-1960s
• Human Relations School
• Behavior schools
– Group Dynamics
– Leadership
– Decision making

The Neoclassical Era 1830s-1960s
• Cooperative systems
• Informal roles and norms influence individual performance
• Work group dynamics influence individual and group performance
• Decision-making styles influence performance

The Modern Era 1960- present
• Systems School
• Societal Systems School
• Management science school
• Contingency school

The Modern Era 1960- present
• Systems School
– Organizations are composed of systems and subsystems
• Societal Systems School
– Composed of social, technological, and environmental subsystems

The Modern Era 1960- present
• Management science school
– Quantitative methods used to solve management and organizational issues
• Contingency school
– Explores alternative organization design configurations and managerial actions for changing situations

• Self-fulfilling prophecy

• Self-fulfilling prophecy
– Belief that an event or outcome will take place

• Self-fulfilling prophecy
• Three steps
– Belief an event will occur
– New behavior performed that would not have been performed if not for the expectation
– The expected event occurs

• Individual
• Team
• Organizational

• Change of skills, insights, knowledge, attitudes, and values acquired by self-study, technology based instruction, insight and observation.

• America’s last dirty word
• Those that openly seek it are categorized as power mongers – as if this is some sort of stigma
• They are looked down upon as lowly individuals

Power the ability to influence another person
Influence the process of affecting the thoughts, behavior, & feelings of another person
Authority the right to influence another person

Power is the capacity of a person, team, or organization to influence others.
– The potential to influence others
– People have power they don’t use and may not know they possess
– Power requires one person’s perception of dependence on another person
C. Price, Vancouver Province

• The ability to produce change by mobilizing one or more people to take action

Important to achieve organizational goals
Alliances are formed
Work gets accomplished
Leadership happens

Zone of Indifference the range in which attempts to influence a person will be perceived as legitimate & will be acted on without a great deal of thought
Zone of Indifference
Managers strive to expand the zone of indifference
Z o n e o f I n d i f f e r e n c e

Legitimate Power
Reward Power
Coercive Power
Expert Power
Referent Power
Reuters Archive Photos

Reward Power - agent’s ability to control the rewards that the target wants
Coercive Power - agent’s ability to cause an unpleasant experience for a target
Legitimate Power - agent and target agree that agent has influential rights, based on position and mutual agreement
Referent Power - based on interpersonal attraction
Expert Power - agent has knowledge target needs

• Strong relationship to performance & satisfaction
• Transfers vital skills, abilities, and knowledge within the organization
• Employees internalize what they observe & learn from managers they consider “experts”

Information Power access to and control over important information
• Formal/informal position in communication network
• Interpreting information when passing it on

• Control over information flow
– Based on legitimate power
– Relates to formal communication network
– Common in centralized structures (wheel pattern)
• Coping with uncertainty
– Those who know how to cope with organizational uncertainties gain power
• Prevention
• Forecasting
• Absorption

Does the behavior produce a good outcome for people both inside and outside the organization?
Does the behavior respect the rights of all parties?
Does the behavior treat all parties equitably and fairly?

Personal Power
 used for personal gain
Social Power
 used to create motivation
 used to accomplish group goals

• Have high need for social power
• Approach relationships with a communal orientation
• Focus on needs and interests of others belief in the authority system belief in justice preference for work & discipline altruism

• Control of critical resources
• Control of strategic contingencies activities that other groups need to complete their tasks
• Ways groups hold power over other groups
– Ability to reduce uncertainty
– High centrality - functionality central to organization’s success
– Nonsubstitutability - group’s activities are difficult to replace

Organizational Power
Coercive Power influence through threat of punishment, fear, or intimidation
Utilitarian Power influence through rewards and benefits
Normative Power influence through knowledge of belonging, doing the right thing

Organizational Membership
Alienative Membership members feel hostile, negative, do not want to be there
Calculative Membership members weigh benefits and limitations of belonging
Moral Membership members have positive organizational feelings; will deny own needs

Ability to intercede for someone in trouble
Ability to get placements for favored employees
Exceeding budget limitations
Procuring above-average raises for employees
Getting items on the agenda at meetings
Access to early information
Having top managers seek out their opinion

Top Executives
• budget cuts
• punishing behaviors
• top-down communications
Staff Professionals
• resistance to change
• turf protection
Managers
• assign external attribution blame others or environment
First-line Supervisors
• overly close supervision
• inflexible adherence to rules
• do job rather than train
Key to overcoming powerlessness: share power & delegate decision making

Power there are more people who inconvenience themselves on your behalf than there are people on whose behalf you would inconvenience yourself
Status a person’s relative standing in a group based on prestige and deference
Time
Access
Furnishings

• Use power in ethical ways
• Understand and use all of the various types of power and influence
• Seek out jobs that allow you to develop your power skills
• Use power tempered by maturity and selfcontrol
• Accept that influencing people is an important part of the management job

• Think
• Think
• Think
• Then Act

• Power Distribution
– Who has the power
– Who needs the power
– What can be done to influence the power holder
• How well do I know the power holder
• When can I get to see the power holder
• What strategies have influenced the power holder in the past

• Structural Diversity
– What is the relationship of the two projects
– Growth potential of each, profits long and short-term organizational benefits
– Do they depend on each other?
• Interdependence
– Breeds dependence and creates a power differential

Person B’s counterpower over Person A
Person
A
Person
B
Person A’s power over
Person B
Person
B’s Goals

• Formal – organizationally assigned
– Part of the managerial hierarchy
• Informal – Expert power
– Superior expertise in the ability to perform a particular job

Sources
Of Power
Power over Others Legitimate
Reward
Coercive
Expert
Referent
Contingencies
Of Power

The Caine Mutiny illustrates the limits of legitimate power in organizations. Captain Queeg
(Humphrey Bogart,) asked his crew to do more than they were willing to follow, so they staged a mutiny.
Reuters Archive Photos

Differentiation
Controlling
Tasks
Increasing
Nonsubstitutability
Controlling labor
Controlling
Knowledge

Sources
Of Power
Power over others
Contingencies
Of Power
Substitutability
Centrality
Discretion
Visibility

Sources
Consequences of Power of Power
Expert
Power
Referent
Power
Legitimate
Power
Reward
Power
Coercive
Power
Commitment
Compliance
Resistance

• Harasser stereotypes the victim as subservient and powerless
• Harasser threatens job security or safety through coercive or legitimate power
• Hostile work environment harassment continues when the victim lacks power to stop the behavior

• Co-workers believe that employees in relationships abuse their power to favor each other.
• Higher risk of sexual harassment when relationship breaks off.

• Attempts to influence others using discretionary behaviors to promote personal objectives
– Discretionary behaviors -- neither explicitly prescribed nor prohibited
• Politics may be good or bad for the organization

Organizational Politics the use of power and influence in organizations
Political Behavior actions not officially sanctioned by an organization that are taken to influence others in order to meet one’s personal goals

Managing impressions
Attacking and blaming
Creating obligations
Types of
Organizational
Politics
Cultivating networks
Controlling information
Forming coalitions

Conditions for Organizational
Politics
Personal
Characteristics
Scarce
Resources
Tolerance of
Politics
Conditions
Supporting
Organizational
Politics
Complex and
Ambiguous
Decisions

Provide
Sufficient
Resources
Remove
Political Norms
Introduce
Clear Rules
Free Flowing
Information
Hire
Low-Politics
Employees
Increase
Opportunities for Dialogue
Manage Change
Effectively
Peer Pressure
Against Politics

Communicator
Characteristics
Communication Medium
• Expert
• Credibility
• Attractive
Message
Content
• Present all sides
• Few arguments
• Emotional appeals
• Inoculation effect
Audience
Characteristics
• Self-esteem
• Inoculated

What characteristics do effective political actors possess?

Consultation
Inspirational appeals
Rational persuasion
Ingratiation
Coalition
Exchange tactics
Upward appeals
Pressure
Upward Influence: the boss
Lateral
Influence: a coworker
Downward Influence: an employee

• Maintain open communication
• Clarify performance expectations
• Use participative management
• Encourage cooperation among work groups
• Manage scarce resources well
• Provide a supportive organizational climate

Understand Your Boss and Her Context

Her goals and objectives

The pressures on her

Her strengths, weaknesses, blind spots

Her preferred work style
Assess Yourself and Your Needs

Your own strengths and weaknesses

Your personal style

Your predisposition toward dependence on authority figures

Develop and Maintain a Relationship that

Fits both your needs and styles

Is characterized by mutual expectations

Keeps your boss informed

Is based on dependability and honesty
 Selectively uses your boss’s time and resources
SOURCE: Information on slides 21-22 adapted and reprinted by permission of Harvard Business Review. From J. J. Gabarro and J. P.
Kotter, “Managing Your Boss,” Harvard Business Review (January-February 1980): 92100. Copyright© 1980 by the Harvard Business
School Publishing Corporation; all rights reserved.

Empowerment: sharing power in such a way that individuals learn to believe in their ability to do the job!

Meaning fit between the work role and the employee’s values and beliefs
E 2s
Self-determination having control over the way one does one’s work
Competence belief that one has the ability to do the job well
Impact belief that one’s job makes a difference within the organization

• Express confidence in employees
• Set high performance expectations
• Create opportunities for participative decision making
• Remove bureaucratic constraints that stifle autonomy
• Set inspirational and meaningful goals

• Use power in ethical ways
• Understand and use all of the various types of power and influence
• Seek out jobs that allow you to develop your power skills
• Use power tempered by maturity and selfcontrol
• Accept that influencing people is an important part of the management job

Understand and use all of the various types of power and influence
• Always say less than necessary
• Guard your reputation with your life
• Court attention at all cost
• Make other people come to you
• Win through actions, not arguments

Understand and use all of the various types of power and influence
• Avoid the unhappy and unlucky people
• Learn to keep people dependent on you
• Do not isolate yourself
• Know who you are dealing with
• Play dumb

Understand and use all of the various types of power and influence
• Keep your hands clean
• Enter action with boldness
• Act well to be treated well
• Ignore the things you cannot have
• Do not try to directly replace anyone
– You may be compared to that great person

Understand and use all of the various types of power and influence
• Preach the need for change
• Never appear too perfect
• Do not go past your goal – until you are able to formulate new directions

• If A equals success, then the formula is
A = X + Y + Z.
X is work.
Y is play.
Z is keep your mouth shut.
-- Albert Einstein