管
理
學
第八章 規劃之基礎
Foundations of Planning
Planning is everything. The plan is nothing.
—General Dwight D. Eisenhower
• Business Proposal (Thesis, project):
Target market segment, Product offering,
Distribution & sales plan,
Indicate advertising & promotion plan,
System & operations requirements,
Financial forecast, Risk & sensitivities,
Milestones & timelines.
• 計畫趕不上變化！坐而言不如起而行？
系學會要經費，系友回娘家，畢旅保險，AACSB 認證，
毛治國生涯規劃，女兒婚禮
2
Contents
8.1 The What and Why of Planning
8.2 Goals And Plans
8.3 Setting Goals and Developing Plans
8.4 Contemporary Issues in Planning
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8.1.1 What Is Planning ? （規劃）
 A primary managerial activity (POLC) that involves:
 Defining the organization’s goals.
 Establishing an overall strategy for achieving those
goals. (Ch. 9)
 Developing plans for organizational work activities.
（計畫, Module: Planning Tools, p.276）
 Types of planning
 Informal: not written down.
 Formal:
*Specific goals covering a specific time period.
*Written and shared with organizational members.
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8.1.2 Why Do Managers Plan?
• Purposes of Planning
 Provides direction
 Reduces uncertainty
 Minimizes waste and redundancy
 Sets the standards for controlling (POLC)
• 沒有一次成功的戰役是按照計畫進行的。
• 紙上畫畫，牆上掛掛，會上罵罵，全不算話。
• No plan vs. micro-management
• 未戰而廟算勝者，得勝多也。
• Proper prior planning prevents poor performance.
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The Planning-Controlling Link
Planning
· Goals
· Objectives
· Strategies
· Plans
Controlling
Organizing
· Standards
· Measurements
· Comparison
· Actions
· Structure
· Human
Resource
Management
Leading
· Motivation
· Leadership
· Communication
· Individual and
Group Behavior
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篇，章，節的關連
• Part 1~2, Defining the Manager’s Terrain,
Part 3~6, POLC
• Part 3,
Ch. 7, Decision-Making,
Ch.8, Foundations of Planning,
Ch.9, Strategic Management
• Sections: 8.1~ 8.4, 8.1.1~8.1.3
•歌劇某中音高手
康乃爾筆記法 (Cornell method)
以「圖像→ 關鍵字→筆記區」的記憶步驟回顧課程內容。
8.1.3 Planning and Performance
• Formal planning is associated with:
 Higher profits and returns on assets
 Positive financial results
 The quality of planning and implementation affects
performance more than the extent of planning
 The external environment can reduce the impact of
planning on performance
*Testable hypotheses.
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8.2 Goals And Plans
(How Do Managers Plan?)
• Elements of Planning
 Goals (Objectives)
 Desired
outcomes for individuals, organizations (Where)
 Provide
direction and evaluation performance criteria
 Plans
 Documents
that outline how goals are to be
accomplished
 Describe
how resources are to be allocated and establish
activity schedules.
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要浪漫的願景，也要務實的規劃
1. 推測外界環境需求
2. 分析內部資源及能力
3. 積極主動訂定目標，採取綜效行動，消除差異
e.g., Ivery Lee, Time management
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Types of Goals
• Financial Goals
 Are related to the expected internal financial performance
of the organization.
• Strategic Goals
 Are related to the performance of the firm relative to
factors in its external environment (e.g., competitors).
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Stated Goals vs. Real Goals
 Broadly-worded official statements of the organization
(intended for public consumption) that may be irrelevant to
its real goals (what actually goes on in the organization).
e.g., FBC, 三好一公道，燈塔理念，保齡，劉達智
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Types of Plans
• Strategic Plans (Ch. 9)
 Establish the organization’s overall goals.
 Seek to position the organization in terms of its
environment.
 Cover extended periods of time.
• Operational Plans (Module: Planning Tools, p.276）
 Specify the details of how the overall goals are to be
achieved.
 Cover short time period.
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Types of Plans (cont’d)
• Long-Term Plans
 Plans with time frames extending beyond three years.
• Short-Term Plans
 Plans with time frames on one year or less.
• Specific Plans
 Plans that are clearly defined and leave no room for
interpretation. (e.g., CFP)
• Directional Plans
 Flexible plans that set out general guidelines, provide focus,
yet allow discretion in implementation.
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Types of Plans (cont’d)
• Single-Use Plan
 A one-time plan specifically designed to meet the need of a
unique situation.
• Standing Plans
 Ongoing plans that provide guidance for activities
performed repeatedly. e.g. Budget.
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8. 3 Setting Goals and Developing Plans
Traditional Goal Setting
 Broad goals are set at the top of the organization.
 Goals are then broken into subgoals for each organizational
level.
 Goals are intended to direct, guide, and constrain from
above.
 Goals lose clarity and focus as lower-level managers
attempt to interpret and define the goals for their areas of
responsibility.
*Assumes that top management knows best because they can
see the “big picture.” (bossism, bottleneck)
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The Downside of Traditional Goal Setting
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Means–Ends Chain
• Maintaining the Hierarchy of Goals
Achievement of lower-level goals is the means by
which to reach higher-level goals (ends).
討論：南宮博士給小飛俠的信
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Management By Objectives (MBO)
 Specific performance goals are jointly determined by
employees and managers.
 Progress toward accomplishing goals is periodically
reviewed.
 Rewards are allocated on the basis of progress towards the
goals.
 Key elements of MBO:
 Goal specificity, participative decision making, an
explicit performance/evaluation period, feedback
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Steps in a Typical MBO Program
1. The organization’s overall objectives and strategies are formulated.
2. Major objectives are allocated among divisional and departmental units.
3. Unit managers collaboratively set specific objectives for their units with
their managers.
4. Specific objectives are collaboratively set with all department members.
5. Action plans, defining how objectives are to be achieved, are specified and
agreed upon by managers and employees.
6. The action plans are implemented.
7. Progress toward objectives is periodically reviewed, and feedback is
provided.
8. Successful achievement of objectives is reinforced by performance-based
rewards.
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Does MBO Work?
* Management By whose Objectives?
Manipulating By Objectives?
* Potential Problems with MBO Programs
 Not as effective in dynamic environments that require
constant resetting of goals.
 Overemphasis on individual accomplishment may create
problems with teamwork.
 Allowing the MBO program to become an annual
paperwork shuffle.
* Reason for MBO Success
 Top management commitment and involvement.
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Characteristics of Well-Designed Goals
1. Written in terms of
outcomes, not actions
4. Challenging yet
attainable
2. Measurable and
quantifiable
5. Written down
3. Clear as to time frame
6. Communicated to all
necessary organizational
members
e.g., 華山論劍，William Lab.
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討論：目標設定之原則
1. Smart:
Specific, Measurable, Attainable,
Relevant, Time bound.
2. Kiss:
Keep it simple and short.
Keep it simple, stupid.
＊一分鐘經理人，59秒員工
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台北市交通白皮書
25
錸德科技 規劃1111願景
1.
2.
3.
4.
每個員工有1棟房子
公司經營績效擠進國內前10大
培養100個專業經理
2005年時，年營收達1000億元目標
e.g., 0941
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Steps in Goal Setting
1. Review the organization’s mission statement.
2. Evaluate available resources.
3. Determine goals individually or with others.
4. Write down the goals and communicate them.
5. Review results and whether goals are being met.
e.g., 1. 承諾前可討論，承諾後使命必達。
2. P. F. Drucker 的三個導師
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Developing Plans
• Contingency Factors in A Manager’s Planning
 Manager’s level in the organization

Strategic plans at higher levels

Operational plans at lower levels
 Degree of environmental uncertainty

Stable environment: specific plans

Dynamic environment: specific but flexible plans
 Length of future commitments

Commitment Concept
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Approaches to Planning
• Establishing a formal planning department
 A group of planning specialists who help managers write
organizational plans.
 Planning is a function of management; it should never
become the sole responsibility of planners.
• Involving organizational members in the process
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8.4 Contemporary Issues in Planning
• Criticisms of Planning：計畫趕不上變化
 Planning may create rigidity.
 Plans cannot be developed for dynamic environments. (e.g.,
國泰 vs. 安泰)
 Formal plans cannot replace intuition and creativity.
 Planning focuses managers’ attention on today’s
competition not tomorrow’s survival.
 Formal planning reinforces today’s success, which may
lead to tomorrow’s failure. (e.g., Icarus, Wang Laboratories)
 Just planning isn’t enough. (Implementing!)
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Effective Planning in Dynamic Environments
 Develop plans that are specific but flexible. (e.g., 18套劇本，
Royal Dutch/Shell, Scenario-based planning)
 Understand that planning is an ongoing process.
(e.g.,毛治國, Muddling through with a purpose)
 Change plans when conditions warrant.
 Persistence in planning eventually pay off.
 Flatten the organizational hierarchy to foster the
development of planning skills at all organizational levels.
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作業
1. Case study: a manager’s dilemma (p. 232)
(1) Identify and articulate business problems
(2) Gather and analyze information applicable
(3) Identify and apply an appropriate tool for solving problems.
2. Thinking critically about ethics (p. 245)
(1) Identifies Dilemma.
(2) Considers Stakeholders
(3) Analyzes Alternatives and Consequences
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3. Developing your goal setting skill (p. 245) 為你自己的
academics, career preparation, family, hobbies 各設定至少兩個
短期目標，兩個長期目標，再訂出達成目標之計畫。
4. Team exercise: four–day week (p. 246)
5. Internet-based exercise (p. 246):
1. 上網，key in “personal mission statement”, or “good planner”,
寫心得。
2. 上網找兩個不同產業的公司，找他們的 goals, 評估其是否
“well writing”?
3. 貴公司有一個目標是更環境永續 (sustainable)，其中有 一步
驟是減少紙張浪費。請擬訂計畫。
33
回顧
1. Planning VS. Plan
2. Stated
VS. Real objectives
3. Strategic VS. Operational plan
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Terms to Know
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
planning
goals
plans
stated goals
real goals
strategic plans
operational plans
long-term plans
short-term plans
specific plans
•
•
•
•
•
•
directional plans
single-use plan
standing plans
traditional goal setting
means-ends chain
management by objectives
(MBO)
• mission
• commitment concept
• formal planning department
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