Case and Class Advocacy
Step Four of the Decision Tree
Chapter 11
Advocacy
What Is It?
• Advocacy is a term for which there is no universal
agreement.
• Several different disciplines claim advocacy as a
primary focus of their discipline (law, social
work). For other disciplines advocacy is a
marginal task (medical advocacy, educational
advocacy, political advocacy).
• The need for advocacy cuts across different client
populations and service settings.
• Advocates utilize power, authority and influence.
Definition
• To advocate is to engage in reasoned
argument on behalf of another; to give voice
(to the voiceless); to intercede, defend, or
plead the cause of another (Bateman, 1995).
• Step four of the decision tree and chapter
11 present content on case advocacy (direct
practice) and class advocacy (indirect
practice).
Class Advocacy
• Class advocacy can take the form of policy
advocacy or advocacy for reform or social change.
• Class advocacy uses the power and influence of
collective action to bring about a just society.
• The three parties in class advocacy are a
marginalized population, a change agent system
(collective action), and a target system (what and
who maintains the status quo).
Case Advocacy
• There are two models of individual or case
advocacy : the broker model and the
adversarial model.
• In case advocacy there are three parties: the
client, the worker and the other party.
• Case advocacy is concerned with individual
justice
Advocacy with Individuals
The Broker Model
• Broker advocacy consists of securing concrete
resources or services for clients.
• To broker services, the worker must have
knowledge of the language and power structures
of specific institutional systems e.g. education,
justice, welfare.
• The worker uses networking and negotiation skills
to broker services within the system on behalf of
the client.
Advocacy With Individuals
Adversarial Model
• The adversarial model of case advocacy is
used when resources/services have been
denied, withdrawn or are non-existent.
• Adversarial advocacy involves three parties:
the client, the advocate, and the other side.
• The adversarial model is marked by tension
and resistance.
Indicators of the Need for
Adversarial Advocacy
• When services or benefits to which people are
entitled are not given or are provided in a
dehumanizing, confrontational or coercive
manner.
• When discriminatory practices occur.
• When gaps in services cause undue hardships.
• When people lack representation or participation
in decisions that affect their lives.
Core Skills of Adversarial
Advocacy
• Assertiveness- Does not violate the rights of
those whom advocacy targets e.g. the other
side (Assertiveness here is distinguished
from aggressiveness).
• Ability to confront those in authority
• Ability to invoke sanctions to secure a
client’s right to service.
Characteristics of Effective
Advocates
•
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Leadership-use of authority, influence, power
Expertise in the method of advocacy
Knowledge about the issue being contested
Factual accuracy
Political adeptness
Reputation of professional integrity
Skills in case presentation
A keen moral compass and courage
Consequences of Adversarial
Advocacy
• The outcome of adversarial advocacy is usually a
win-lose situation. Either side may experience
serious consequences.
• The rights of the client are pitted against an
organization’s effort to protect resources or defend
their position.
• Advocacy can lead to revenge directed at either
the client or the worker or both (Bateman, 1995).
• Only a very small proportion of social workers
practice adversarial advocacy.
Six Stages of Adversarial
Advocacy
• Stage One: Awareness of need for advocacy
Usually involves unmet needs for housing,
services, money, or treatment.
• Stage Two: Client consents to release information
relevant to the issue being contested. The worker
gathers information (facts) as perceived by each
side. The worker states the legal or procedural
authority for the advocacy request being made.
• Stage Three: Legal research is done to get the law
right. Cross checking and interviewing is done to
get the facts straight.
Six Stages of Adversarial
Advocacy-Continued
• Stage Four: The worker consults with the client.
Feedback is provided about the status of the case
and options for various courses of action are laid
out. The risks and benefits of each option are
discussed with the client.
• Stage Five: Consists of active negotiation with
those identified as empowered to make decisions.
• Stage Six: If negotiations fail, litigation may be
pursued. Litigation enforces rights.
Three Styles of Negotiation
1. Competitive Negotiation: Threats, intimidation,
superiority and blame characterize the dialogue.
This minimizes the risk of exploitation but
makes it harder to reach an agreement.
2. Co-operative Negotiation: Attempts are made
to establish common ground and identify shared
values. This style is vulnerable to manipulation
and exploitation.
3. Principled or Problem-solving negotiation.
Principled Negotiation
Six Elements.
1. Negotiate on the merits of the case (don’t
bargain)
2. Focus on interests rather than positions.
3. Find solutions that produce mutual gain.
4. Avoid tricks and posturing.
5. Insist that the end result is based on an
objective standard and is fair.
6. Don’t let the negotiations get personal.
Power
Levels of Intensity
• Recognize that there are times when a
rational argument presented in a highly civil
manner does no good.
• In those circumstances, apply power using
the principles of least contest and controlled
escalation.
Principles of Least Contest and
Controlled Escalation
• Least contest refers to applying the
minimum degree of conflict that will bring
about the desired result.
• Controlled escalation refers to arriving at an
optimal outcome with a minimal
expenditure of strategic resources.
Levels of Power
Intensity
• Level 1: low conflict, marked by discussion
and persuasion.
• Level 2: moderate conflict- prodding
•
occurs.
• Level 3: high conflict –some coercion
occurs.
Case Scenario and Advocacy
Schema
• The case advocacy scenario “K” presented
in this chapter illustrates the move from
broker advocacy to moderate conflict
adversarial advocacy.
• The decision schema at the end of the
chapter guides the practitioner in the use of
case advocacy.
Class Advocacy
Just and Humane Society
There are two types of social work class
advocacy:
(1) public policy advocacy
(2) rights advocacy-reform and social
change through social activism.
Public Policy Advocacy
• Public policy advocacy is a collective strategy
used to address inequalities in the distribution of
goods and services including the resources of
wealth, power, health, knowledge and services.
• Fairness and equality demand that distribution of
goods and services not be left to: a) those in
power, b) chance, or c) a flawed economic system.
Rights Advocacy
• Rights advocacy addresses discriminatory and
oppressive environments through social activism.
• The goal of social activism is to reform or change
those structural barriers that contribute to an
unjust society.
• In policy and rights advocacy, the social problems
are unbounded. There is less clarity as to the
source of the problem and its solution.
• The timeframe for resolution of social problems is
uncertain.
Declarative Knowledge Needed
for Policy Advocacy
1. Descriptive content on social welfare policies
and programs; past and current
2. Content on the political & organizational;
processes that influence policy development and
implementation.
3. Analytical frameworks for evaluating policies
for their structure and function
4. Value frameworks for determining the desired
end-goals of policy initiatives; theories of social
justice.
Declarative Knowledge for
Policy Advocacy- Continued
5. Research competency in documenting
needs/resources and evaluating policybased program outcomes.
6. Knowledge of economics.
7. Skill in the use of group dynamics,
leadership and organizing.
Sociology of Social Problems
• Texts on social problems usually provide
quantitative data documenting the
prevalence and incidence of large scale
social problems such as poverty, crime,
health/illness, aging, urban blight, racism,
gender discrimination, etc.
• Such data is usually accompanied by an
argument of social causality
Social Causality
• In broad strokes, the argument for social causality
states that social problems result from oppressive
and discriminatory practices associated with
existing societal structures and their functions e.g.
the link between capitalism and poverty.
• To understand social causality, students must have
knowledge of social forces that contribute to the
dysfunction of societal institutions.
• This content is taught in sociology 101 and/or in
the human behavior and social environment
sequence in the foundation year.
The Normative Basis of Social
Welfare Public Policy
• It is important to understand the normative
(value and ideological) base of social policy.
• According to Popple and Leighninger
(2000) two dominant value streams have
influenced American social policies:
(1) capitalist-puritan
(2) humanist-positivist-utopian
Capitalist-Puritan Norm
• The values of reciprocity (link between work and
benefits) and individualism (personal
responsibility) characterize this norm.
• This value stream holds that individuals are
responsible for their own success or failure.
• It holds that material prosperity is achieved
through hard work.
• The primary purpose of society is to maintain law
and order to protect the acquisition of wealth and
property.
Capitalist-Puritan Norm Continued
• It holds that the free market, though flawed,
is the best mechanism for economic growth.
• Social policies are therefore needs-based
and means-tested
• This value stream holds that those who are
unsuccessful or deviant should be provided
temporary and limited assistance.
Humanitarian-Positivist-Utopian
Norm
• Humanitarianism holds that the primary purpose
of society is to fulfill the material and emotional
needs of the citizenry.
• Positivism holds that scientific knowing can
understand and correct flawed or dysfunctional
social dynamics; progress is possible.
• Utopianism holds that individuals and society are
ultimately perfectible; change is possible.
• This value stream holds that structural barriers
limit individual opportunities.
Theories of Social Justice
• Public social policy is based on the norm of redistributive social justice.
• As a grand abstraction, social justice refers to an
ideal system of government, economic production
and distribution, and freedom from discrimination
and oppression.
• Ideas (ideologies) about just social goals are
derived from philosophy, theology, and political
science.
Theories of Social Justice
• Norms (desired end-goals) that direct the
redistribution of wealth in a society are driven by
competing value-based definitions of the “good”
society.
• There are four major theories of re-distributive
social justice: (1) egalitarianism, (2) utilitarianism,
(3) contractarianism, (4) libertarianism.
4 Theories of Social JusticeContinued
A. Egalitarianism- desire for equal and/or equity in
the distribution of society’s goods.
B. Utilitariansim-desire for the greatest good for
the greatest number.
C. Contractarianism- justifies some inequality as
long as the redistribution does not widen the gap
between the rich and the poor.
D. Libertariansim- holds that no re-distribution
should occur.
Public Opinion and Political
Referendum
• Social welfare policies and programs reflect
ideological beliefs.
• Social welfare policies and programs vie for
support in the arena of public opinion and political
referendum.
• Competition over scarce resources leads to
conflict and negotiated trade-offs between
population subgroups within a society.
• Value conflicts are not resolved by science.
• Power aligns with the desired end goals of policy.
Rights Advocacy
• According to this model of practice. both
oppressed and oppressor are in need of liberation.
• Rights advocacy works for a just society based on
gender and racial equality, multi-cultural
acceptance, celebration of alternative life styles as
well as an appreciation for ages and the differently
abled.
• Rights advocacy has led to several movements:
civil rights, women’s rights, gay rights, welfare
rights, workers rights, and rights of the disabled. l
Rights Advocacy
Two Strategies
•
Rights advocacy relies on two major tools
of empowerment:
(1) consciousness raising
(2) social action.
Consciousness Raising
• Empowerment results from the validation of
shared experiential histories and views.
• Knowledge of group dynamics is essential
in consciousness raising.
• In consciousness raising people are brought
together to dialog, reflect and act (praxis)
Consciousness Raising
Dialectic Dialog
Dialectic dialog:
1. Challenges the images of social reality
2. Examines ideas, beliefs, and assumptions
that people take for granted
3. Examines individual and collective
motives, interests and needs
4. Identifies values and ideologies that guide
dominant and dominated group relations.
Consciousness Raising
Reflection
• Reflection requires members to locate themselves
in position; as both oppressor and as oppressed
• Reflection requires members to examine how they
contribute to and maintain an oppressive status
quo.
• Reflection requires members to consider
becoming activists by joining others in pursuit of
social justice.
Social Activism
• Social activism is the ability to join with others
(form alliances) to exercise power as participants
in a political or reform process.
• The ability to confront oppression and exert
influence other others through social activism
enhances personal power and an individual’s sense
of well-being
• Power is increased through collective activism.
Political Social Work
• Political action is a distinguishing feature of social
work class advocacy practice.
• According to Gil, conventional politics pursues
important short-term goals.
• Social policy advocates provide expert testimony
and influence legislation through lobbying
activities. Some are elected to political office.
• Policy advocates write, issue and/or respond to
legislative alerts.
Rights Advocacy
• Rights activists pursue the root causes of
oppression and injustice by seeking
fundamental transformation in the key
institutions of society.
• Rights activists seek to influence and
change ideological beliefs.
Institutional Oppression
• According to Gil, domination of exploited groups
has been institutionalized in the form of economic,
social, psychological, and cultural systems that
establish privileged conditions of living for certain
social classes and racial groups and not for others.
• Those who have stewardship over life-sustaining
natural and human resources shape the
circumstances of living and the relative power of
individuals and social classes.
Institutional Practices
Discrimination
• Societal institutions organize work and
production, oversee the exchange and distribution
of resources, regulate civil and political rights and
responsibilities, and govern and set norms for
reproduction, socialization and social control
• Perceptions of relative status and prestige become
internalized through socialization &
indoctrination.
• This process is at the core of discrimination.
Values
Competition and Self-Interest
• Values such as competition and self-interest foster
inequality; the consequence of which is the
creation of an occupationally, spatially, stratified
society.
• Those who are privileged possess greater shares of
available goods and services and enjoy different
levels of rights, responsibilities, and liberty.
• Minor inequalities in exchanges tend to become
legitimized and institutionalized.
Social Transformation
• Rights advocacy depends on social activists who
pursue fundamental social transformations.
• According to Gil, policy advocacy and the
activities of the United Nations are necessary and
ethically valid efforts that reduce the intensity of
injustice and oppression
• In contrast, social transformation is a lengthy,
persistent process that seeks to change the root
cause of oppression and injustice.
Social Transformation
Continued
• Social transformation involves the
development of critical consciousness.
• It uses small and large groups to engage in
social activism; This activism is often
referred to as social movements
• It seeks to change fundamental perceptions,
attitudes and behavior through countercultural education.
Evidence
• Armed Conflict-Liberation
According to Gil, the agents and victims of
oppression do change but the root causes that
produce oppression do not.
• Public Policies and Programs
Formative (process) and summative (outcome)
evaluation studies determine the efficacy of public
policies and programs. See chapter 15.
• Activist Research
Research can be used to oppress or liberate.
Decision Schema
The two decision schemas at the end of the
chapter guide the practitioner is using case
advocacy and class advocacy.
The schemas summarize the content of this
chapter.