Organisations- og Virksomhedsteori
6. Undervisningsgang – 11. marts 2013
Lectures, Spring 2013
Week Date
Subject
Literature
5
28. Jan
Introduction to the course
6
4.
Multiple Perspectives
7
11. Feb
Winter holiday
8
18. Feb
Organizations and Environment
9
25. Feb
Cancelled
10
4.
Organizational Social Structure + Case
MJH, Chap 4 + Comp
11
11. Mar
Culture + Technology
MJH, Chap 6 + 5
12
18. Mar
Organizational Power, Control & Conflict + Case
MJH, Chap 8 + IKEA
13
25. Mar
Case Work kick off
14
1.
Apr
Easter holiday
15
8.
Apr
Case work – supervision at ITU
16
15. Apr
Theory in Practice / New directions in Organization Theory
MJH, Chap 9+10
17
22. Apr
Strategizing; Intro + Decision Theory
Nygaard, Chap 1+2
18
29. Apr
Strategizing; Agent- and Transactional cost analysis
Nygaard, Chap 4+5
19
6.
Strategizing; Institutional- Networks theory
Nygaard, Chap 8+9
20
13. May
Strategizing; Corporate Systems Theory
Nygaard, Chap 10
21
20. May
Whit Monday
22
27. May
Spare week
Feb
Mar
May
MJH, Chap 1+2
MJH, Chap 3
Organizational Culture
Welcome to the world of Organizational Culture!
Cultures integrate human diversity with a shared sense of belonging
that can be expressed in a multitude of ways, only a few which are
likely to be acknowledged by every cultural member. In this sense
sharing culture is paradoxical, being at once universal and particular,
tangible and intangible, integrated and fragmented, and relying upon
community and diversity.
A construct describing the total body of belief, behavior, knowledge,
sanctions, values, and goals that make up the way of life of a people.
Exercise!
Please form 1-3 groups and discuss the following statements:
Elliott Jaques (1952:251)
Andrew Pettigrew (1979:574)
Meryl Reis Louis (1983:39)
The culture of the factory is its
customary and traditional way of
thinking and doing things, which is
shared to a greater or lesser degree by
all its members, and which new
members must learn and at least
partially accept, in order to be accepted
into service in the firm.
Culture is a system of Publicly and
collectively accepted meanings
operating for a given group at a given
time. The system of terms, forms,
categories and images interprets a
people’s own situation to themselves.
Organizations are culture bearing
milieux, that is, they are distinctive
social units possessed of a set of
common understandings for organizing
action and languages and other
symbolic vehicles for expressing
common understandings
Edgar Schein (1985:6)
John van Maanen (1988:3)
Harrison Trice and Janice Beyer
The pattern of basic assumptions that a
given group has invented, discovered or
developed in learning to cope with its
problems of external adaption and
internal integration, and that have
worked well enough to be considered
valid, and, therefore to be taught to
new members as the correct way to
perceive, think and feel in relation to
these problems.
Cultures refers to the knowledge
members of a given group are taught to
more or less share; knowledge of the
sort that is said to inform, embed,
shape, and account for the routine and
not-so-routine activities of the
members of the culture. A culture is
expressed (or constituted) only
through the actions and words of its
members and must be interpreted by,
not given to, a field worker. Culture is
not itself visible, but is made visible only
through its representation.
Cultures are collective phenomena that
embody people’s responses to the
uncertainties and chaos that are
inevitable in human experience. These
responses fall into two major
categories. The first is the substance of
a culture; Shared, emotionally charged
belief systems that we call ideologies.
The second is cultural forms;
Observable entities including actions,
through which members of a culture
express, affirm and communicate the
substance of their culture to one
another
Organizational Culture
Church
Family
Occupational
Cultures
Industrial
Culture
School
Community
Professional
Cultures
Organizational cultures
have complex
relationships with the
environments in which
they operate and from
which they recruit their
members. Employees
join an organization
having already been
socialized by cultural
institutions such as
family, community, church
and school.
Organizational Subcultures
Members of a subculture identifies
themselves as distrinct group(s) with
unique collective understandings
Subculture
Subculture
Subculture
• Dominant subculture, typically put
forward by company management,
also known as the corporate culture.
• Enhancing subcultures that
enthusiastically support the
corporate culture.
• Orthogonal subcultures holds
independant values and beliefs that
neither interfere with norcelebrate
the dominant culture.
• Countercultures holds values
and beliefs that actively challenges
the corporate culture.
Organizational Subcultures
Strong culture:
An agreement about what is valued
and the intensity with which these
values are held.
Strong Cultures are marked by both
high agreement and high intensity.
While silo cultures may have high
intensity within their subcultures,
they do not agree what matters
most.
The Silo metaphor
Distinctive norms, values, routines and discourses
Multucultural perspective - Hofstede
Culture
Culture
Physical
Social
Regulatory
Agencies
Social
Physical
Regulatory
Agencies
Unions
Customers
Legal
Unions
Customers
Legal
Organization
Suppliers
Culture
Partners
Physical
Organization
Suppliers
Partners
Political
Competitors
Special Interests
Political
Regulatory
Agencies
Economy Social
Unions
Customers
Legal
Competitors
Special Interests
Economy
Technology
Organization
Suppliers
Technology
Culture
Culture
Physical
Social
Regulatory
Agencies
Social
Physical
Partners
Political
Competitors
Special Interests
Regulatory
Agencies
Economy
Unions
Customers
Legal
Technology
Unions
Customers
Legal
Organization
Suppliers
Partners
Culture
Physical
Organization
Suppliers
Partners
Political
Competitors
Special Interests
Political
Competitors
Special Interests
Economy
Regulatory
Agencies
Economy
Social
Unions
Customers
Legal
Technology
Organization
Suppliers
Technology
As soon as an organization begins to expand its
activities beyond the boundaries of its home
nation, it will interact with regularly with
representatives of organizations from other
nations – joint venture partners, consumer
groups, tariff collecting agencies, tax authorities
and licensing agents, to name only a few – and
all of these stakeholders will become part of the
organization’s network.
Partners
Political
Competitors
Special Interests
Technology
Economy
The international / global environment is not
simply ‘another layer of things to worry about’.
It represents a fundamental shift in perspective
such as shown in the figure .
The international environment includes actors
that cross national boundaries or operate on a
global scale. Trends can appear in different
sectors of the international environment, just as
they do in the general environment. In this
regard, it can be difficult to separate out general
and international sector trends and conditions
in the overall environment.
Multicultural perspective - Hofstede
Uncertainty avoidance Index - How do people cope with uncertainty and ambiguity
Low: accepting innovative ideas, differences of
opinion and eccentric behavior
0
10
20
30
40
High: resisting or legislating the these areas
50
60
70
80
90
100
Power distance Index - Accepting an unequal distribution of power
Low: inequalities are difficult to accept
0
10
20
30
High: relies heavily on hierarchy , hence unequal
authority distribution
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Multicultural perspective - Hofstede
Individualism Index - The degree to which individuals are expected to act independently of others
Low: individualism is seen as undesirable and
alienating
0
10
20
30
40
High: Individual rights are paramount and a symbol
of well being
50
60
70
80
90
100
Masculinity Index - The degree of separation between gender roles in a society
Low: Gender differences are less pronounced
0
10
20
30
40
High: Men are expected to be more assertive and
women more nurturing
50
60
70
80
90
100
Multucultural perspective - Hofstede
Long-term vs. short-term
Cultural differences in predilections for thrift and perseverance
Low: Traditions and commitments represent fewer challenges to change
High: Hard work will lead to long-term rewards
Norms
Three levels of culture - Schein
Artifacts
Artifacts are manifestations or expressions of
the same cultural core that produces and
maintains values and norms
Values
Values are the social principles, goals and
standards that cultural members believe to
have intrinsic worth. They define what we care
most about and are revealed by our priorities.
Assumptions
Assumptions represent truth, or what
members of a culture believe to be their
reality. Invisible and typically taken for granted.
Three levels of culture - Schein
• Basic assumptions represent truth, or what members of a culture believe
to be their reality. They are typically taken for granted. Even though they are
beneath ordinary awareness these unquestioned aspects of culture penetrate
every part of cultural life and color all forms of human experience. As Schein
said, they influence what cultural members perceive and how they think and
feel.
• According to Schein, a culture’s deep assumptions pervade the next level of
culture – cultural values. Values are social principles, goals and standards that
cultural members believe have an intrinsic worth. They define what the
members of a culture care most about and are revealed by their priorities.
Because they also guide cultural members in their evaluation of what is right
and what is wrong, a culture’s values are sometimes equated with its moral
code.
Three levels of culture - Schein
• Norms are expressions of values. They are unwritten rules that allow
members of a culture to know what is expected of them in a wide variety of
situations including how to coordinate their behavior with that of others.
Norms communicate expectations regarding many types of social behavior.
Business norms communicate important information such as when you
should inform your superior of potential problems, what sort of clothing you
should wear to work, and when it is appropriate to display emotion.
• According to Schein’s theory, members of a culture hold values and conform
to cultural norms because their underlying assumptions nurture and support
these norms and values. The norms and values, in turn, encourage activities
that produce cultural artifacts. Artifacts are manifestations or expressions of
the same cultural core that produces and maintains values and norms;
however, their further distance from the cultural core can make it even more
difficult to interpret their cultural significance unambiguously.
Three levels of culture - Artifacts
Category
Examples
Objects
Arts, design and logo
Architecture, décor and furnishings
Dress, appearance, costume and uniform
Products, equipment and tools
Display of posters, photos, memorabilia and cartoons
Signage
Jargon, names and nicknames
Explanations and theories
Stories, myths and legends and their heroes and villains
Superstitions and rumors
Humor and jokes
Metaphors, proverbs and slogans
Speeches, rhetoric and oratory
Ceremonies, rituals and rites of passage
Meetings, retreats and parties
Communication patterns
Traditions, customs and social routines
Gestures
Play, recreation and games
Rewards and punishments
Verbal expressions
Activities
Gagliardi
Every organization's
primary strategy can be
defined as to protect the
organizational identity that
the core assumptions and
values create and maintain.
In service to the primary
strategy, organizations may
develop and implement a
range of secondary
strategies which can be
instrumental (operational
in nature) or expressive
(symbolic in nature)
Gagliardi
Secondary strategies can either be:
• Instrumental that are operational in nature; they direct attention to the
attainment of specific measureable objects
• Expressive operate in the symbolic realm and protect the stability and coherence
of shared meanings by enabling group members to maintain a lively awareness of
their collective self and offer a recognizable identity to the outside world
Gagliardi describes three types of change
• Apparent occurs within culture but does not change it in any significant way, new
problems are confronted by choosing from the range of secondary strategies.
• Revolutionary happens when a strategy is incompatible with cultural assumptions
and values when imposed upon a organization, usually through the entry of outsiders
who destroy old symbols and create new ones
• Incremental is the only way of change that reaches the deep level of cultural
values and assumptions
Organisations- og Virksomhedsteori
Technology
Technology, skill of the artist
Modernist perspective: Equate technology with its most objective features; the tools,
equipment, machines and procedures through which work is accomplished. Deterministic
perspective because it claims that different technology types suits different environments,
require different social structures and affect human action differently.
Symbolic-interpretivist perspective (SCOT): studies how technologies are
themselves shaped by processes of social construction . They argue that technologies both
shape and are shaped by cultural norms, power relations and aspects of the organizations
physical structure.
Postmodernist perspective: claims that technologies popularity with modernists
derives from its ability to mask ways that employees are monitored and controlled by
those in authority. Technology impose discipline on those who use them and that their
demand for certain behaviors are build right into the production system. Technical design
choices and their consequences reflect the imbalance of power in organizational
relationships – managers and designers control workers but not the other way around.
Modernist definitions
Core Technology: is the transformation process directly involved in producing the
organizations products and services. Comparing core technologies makes it possible to
study the differences between both competing and non-competing organizations.
High Technology: has been used loosely to describe many different aspects of computerbased technology. At other times high technology refers to any business in which
technology is changing rapidly or to one that is considered technologically innovative.
Service Technology: Service technology can be described by these three main
characteristics:
• are consumed as they are produced
• are intangible
• cannot be stored in inventory
Woodwards typology
Which organizational arrangement that produce the highest performance levels??
Small batch and unit production: Small spans of control, fewer management levels and
decentralized decision making – characteristics of organic organizational forms.
Large batch and mass production: Large spans of control, centralized decision making,
characteristics of mechanistic forms of organizing.
Contimous process production: Same as small batch but more Mgmt levels.
High
Group III
Contimous
process
production
Technically complexity
Group II
Large batch
and mass
production
I Production of single pieces to customers orders
II Production of technically complex units one by one
III Fabrication of large equipment in stages
IV Procuction of pieces in small batches
V Production of large components in large batches- assembled diversely
VI Production of large components in large batches- assembly line type
VII Mass Production
VIII Contimous Process Production, combined with mass or batch methods
IX Continous Process Production of chemicals in batches
X Continous flow production of liquids, gasses and solid shapes.
Low
Group I
Small batch
and unit
production
Thompsons typology
Long-linked; technologies generally fits into either the mass production or continuous
processing categories that Woodward defined. Thompson used the descriptive term ‘longlinked’ because all of the technologies of this type involve linear transformation processes
that have inputs entering at one end of a long series of sequential steps from which
products emerge at the other.
Mediating; technologies serves clients or customers by bringing them together in an
exchange or other transaction. In general, these technologies link partners in a potential
exchange by helping them locate one another and conduct their transactions, often
without ever having to physically meet. Thompson used the term ‘mediating’ because
organizations using these technologies act as go-betweens in bringing together the
interests of two or more parties to a transaction.
Intensive; technology require coordinating the specialized abilities of two or more
experts in the transformation of usually unique input into a customized output. Each use
of intensive technology requires on-the-spot development and application of specialized
knowledge to new problems or unique circumstances.
Thompsons typology
Thompson’s typology can be easily visualized in terms of a two-by-two matrix. Using this
matrix, you can classify any organization as producing either highly standardized outputs
from highly standardized inputs or unstandardized outputs from standardized inputs, and as
either using standardized or un-standardized transformation process.
Transformation processes
Non-standardized
Standardized
Standardized
Long-Linked
?
Inputs/
Outputs
Non-standardized
Mediating
Intensive
Perrows typology
Task variability is measured by counting the number of expectations to standard
procedures encountered in the application of a given technology. Task analyzability is
measured as to which extend, when an exception is encountered, there are known
analytical methods for dealing with it.
• Routine: technologies are characterized by low task variability and high task analyzability.
Usually represents assembly like lines such as Thompsons long-linked typology
• Craft: technology describes conditions of low task variability and low task analyzability.
Construction work is craft technology. Few varieties and when exceptions occurs,
inventions must be made
• Engineering: technologies occur where high task variability combines with high task
analyzability. Characterized by high task variety but standardized exception handling.
• Nonroutine: technology is the label attached to technologies characterized by high task
variability and low task analyzability. Many varieties and when exceptions occur, inventions
must be made.
Perrows typology
Whereas Woodward and Thompson treated organizations as if they had only one
dominant technology, Charles Perrow theorized technology by focusing on the task level
of analysis. He began by defining the variability and analyzability of tasks and then created
measures that assessed these two dimensions
Task variability
High
Low
High
Routine
Low
Craft
Engineering
Task analyzability
Non-routine
Routineness and complexity
Routineness of work
Small Batch
Continuous
Processing
Assembly workers
Technicians
Artisans
Artists
Low
Mass
Production
Design engineers, scientists
Complexity of the technology
High
Musikkonservatoriet
1.
Har konsulentfirmaet efter jeres mening
brugt de rigtige variabler i bestræbelserne
på at kunne diagnosticere
strukturproblemer i en organisation
2.
Foretag en teoretisk baseret diagnose af
de strukturelle problemer på
konservatoriet. Hvor er kilden til
hovedproblemerne efter jeres mening??
Inddrag gerne sammenligninger fra jeres
egne oplevelser fra andre
uddannelsesinstitutioner
3.
På baggrund af jeres diagnose må i
komme med en teoretisk begrundet plan
for, hvorledes konservatoriet kan
omstrukturere for at løse sine
strukturproblemer