Presented by
Bryan Downer & Elaine Garcia
Mental Models – What are they?
 Mental models are the images (attitudes and
assumptions) we carry in our minds about ourselves,
other people, institutions, and every aspect of the
world which guide our interpretations and behavior.
 Like a pane of glass which restricts or distorts our
vision, our mental models determine what we see.
 Typically exist below the level of awareness
 We tend to be attracted to, and take in, only
the information that reinforces our mental
models.
P. Senge
The Effect of Mental Models
information
does not get
through
mental model
some info.
gets through,
but is changed
only info. that
fits “familiar
ways of thinking
& acting” gets
through unchanged
Awareness of Mental Models
 Senge explains that we cannot possibly process equally
and accurately all of the reality that is around us. By
necessity we have to operate according to mental models
in order to concentrate our efforts. However, mental
models are limiting. They limit because they require
assumptions. Assumptions are not data, but rather are
inferred from data. Therefore, they are subject to error.
 Senge is not recommending that we get rid of our
mental models, but is strongly suggesting that we
remain aware of them. That awareness keeps us
open to new data and continuous mental model
revision.
The Ladder of Inference
 We operate on self-generating beliefs based on
conclusions inferred from what we observe, plus our past
experience. Senge refers to this as climbing up a mental
“ladder of inference” – a common mental pathway of
increasing abstraction, often leading to misguided beliefs.
 The only observable data is the action at the bottom of
the ladder and your decision to take action at the top.
However, traveling up the rungs of the ladder takes place
in your head – unseen and unquestioned assumptions
and conclusions, perhaps considered unfit for discussion.
These leaps up the ladder are sometimes called “leaps of
abstraction.”
The Ladder of Inference
Leaps of abstraction based on our mental models
Traveling up the Ladder of Inference
- José will never change. He will always
misbehave and needs to be suspended.
- José is a bad student and he will be
a problem for me.
- José was transferred to our school
because he misbehaves a lot
- The previous school couldn’t handle
José.
- José gets in trouble and suspended
a lot.
- José has multiple referrals in his cum.
- José transferred from a neighboring
school.
Differences in our Mental Models
Real case example:
Teacher A: 28-year old, moved up to 3rd grade to
have a greater impact on student achievement after
teaching kindergarten for 8 years, effective team
leader and supporter in grade level, continually asks
for coaching support and effectively plans for &
implements new strategies, effectively uses data to
implement targeted interventions
Teacher B: 60-year old, feels overwhelmed with
implementing new student engagement strategies &
a new math program, struggles with meeting the
diverse needs of her students, has low expectations
for student learning, resistant to coaching support,
not a “team player”
Differences in our Mental Models
Real case example (continued):
The new principal proposed becoming a Math & Science Magnet
School with a grant providing $350,000 per year for 3 years for
staff development/planning days and materials. She has several
years of grant writing and program implementation experience &
successfully helped 2 elementary schools and 1 middle school in
the district become magnet schools. Being a magnet school
would help improve the image of the elementary school and draw
in more students. Other magnet schools have found that
students are more motivated and want to read more because
they are excited about science. Magnet schools have found
students perform better on the CST in math, language arts, & 5th
grade science.
Discussion Question:
Based on their mental models, how do you think Teacher A &
Teacher B perceive & vote on this magnet school proposal?
Awareness of our Mental Models
Generational Mental Models – Knowing the values and
characteristics of the different generations helps us to
understand their mental models.
“Matures” = respect for authority, group-oriented, family and
work are separate, delayed gratification, seniority
“Baby Boomers” = optimistic, defined by their job,
“workaholics”, competitive, success is visible
“Generation Xers” = skeptical (“prove it to me”), value free
time, short-term goals
“Millenials” = optimistic, time to grow up later (“adultolescence”), instant gratification, expected to succeed
Mental Models in our Leadership Style – Our mental
models shape our leadership style.
Nondirective  Collaborative  Directive Informational  Directive Control
Mental Models in the Workplace
Behind every plan lies a multitude of mental models,
unconsciously shaping our decisions about who will
be served, what issues will be addressed, what
actions we will permit ourselves to take, what
outcomes are desirable, and what standards we will
use to determine effectiveness.
J. B. Arango, Algodones Assoc. Inc.
Mental models can limit our ability to change.
Because mental models limit us to familiar ways of
thinking and acting, me must expose and challenge
our mental models as some will have to change in
order to change our future.
Working with Mental Models
“The discipline of mental models starts with turning
the mirror inward; learning to unearth our internal
pictures of the world, to bring them to the surface
and hold them rigorously to scrutiny. It also
includes the ability to carry on ‘learningful’
conversations that balance inquiry and
advocacy, where people expose their own
thinking effectively and make that thinking open
to the influence of others.”
Senge, P. 1990. The Fifth Discipline. The Art and Practice of the
Learning Organization.
Protocols for Improved Inquiry
Ask others to make their thinking
process visible
What to do
What to say
Gently walk people down the ladder of
inference and find out what data they are
operating from.
“What did you actually hear or see that
led you to that conclusion?” “What data
do you have for that statement?” Or,
more simply: “What leads you to say
that?”
Use unaggressive language, particularly
with people who are not familiar with
these skills.
Instead of “What do you mean?” or
“What’s your proof?” say, “Can you help
me understand your thinking here?”
Draw out their reasoning. Find out as
much as you can about why they are
saying what they’re saying.
“What is the significance of that?” or,
“How does this relate to your other
concerns?”
Explain your reasons for inquiring, and
how your inquiry relates to your own
concerns, hopes, and needs.
“I’m asking you about your assumptions
here because…”
P. Senge, et al. 2000. Schools That Learn… p. 220
Protocols for Improved Advocacy
What to do
What to say
State your assumptions, and describe
the data that led to them.
“Here’s what I think, and here’s how I
got there.”
Make your reasoning explicit.
“I came to this conclusion because…”
Explain the context of your point of
“Consider the 2nd grade English
view: who will be affected by what you language learners. Here’s how this
propose, how will they be affected,
idea would affect them…”
and why. Give examples, even if
they’re hypothetical or metaphorical.
• As you speak, try to picture the other
peoples’ perspectives on what you are
saying.
• Publicly test your conclusions and
assumptions.
P. Senge, et al. 2000. Schools That Learn… p. 220
Protocols for Improved Advocacy
(continued)
What to do
What to say
Encourage others to explore your
model, your assumptions, and your
data.
“What do you think about what I just
said?” Or, “Do you see any flaws in
my reasoning?”
Reveal where you are least clear in
“Here’s one aspect that you might help
your thinking. Rather than making you me think through…”
vulnerable, this defuses the force of
advocates who are opposed to you,
and invites improvement.
Even when advocating: listen, stay
“Do you see it differently?”
open, and encourage others to provide
different views.
P. Senge, et al. 2000. Schools That Learn… p. 220
Drawing Forth Our Inner Assumptions About 4
Critical Areas:
1.
2.
-
What are our beliefs about how children learn?
Do we truly believe that all children can succeed?
What content do we assume is best to teach?
Are we so focused on “teaching to the test” that we
produce students who can pass tests, but fail life?
3. How is the material best delivered?
- Do we have high expectations for all students while
providing appropriate scaffolding as needed?
4. How is staff development supported
organizationally?
- Are organizational support systems in place to ensure that
desired changes are carried out?
P. Senge