INSTITUTIONAL SUPPORT
FOR INEQUALITY IN U.S.
SOC 3300 – 2ND HALF OF TERM
DR. M.C. SENGSTOCK
PROFESSOR OF SOCIOLOGY
WAYNE STATE UNIVERSITY
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SUMMARY THUS FAR
• Focus on Nature & Types of Inequality
• History of Inequality:
– General
– U.S. Dimensions
• Some Introductory Causal Issues
• Brief Introduction to Institutional Dimensions
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2ND HALF OF TERM
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Focus Primarily on American Institutions
Meaning of “Institutions” in Societies
Types of Institutions in American Society
Means By Which Institutions Relate to Inequality:
– Help Establish Inequalities
– Reinforce Existing Social Statuses
– Reinforce Existing Inequalities
Source: Part II, Intro:
“Maintaining Inequalities: Systems of Oppression & Privilege”
3
WHAT IS AN INSTITUTION?
• Social Structure Governing Action of
Individuals within a Specific Sphere of Activity
• Widespread Throughout Society
• Does NOT Refer to a Specific Group or
Organization
• I.e., “Bank of America” is NOT an “Institution”
• The Structure of “Banking” in American IS an
“Institution”
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TYPICAL SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
IN NEARLY ALL SOCIETIES
• FAMILY: Structure of Persons with Biological
(or Perceived Biological) Relationships
• RELIGION: Structure of Beliefs and Relation to
“The Unknown”
• ECONOMY: Structure of Means by Which
Members of a Society Make a Living
• POLITICAL: Structure by Which Society Is
Governed
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INSTITUTIONS IN
MODERN SOCIETIES
• FAMILY – RELIGION – ECONOMY – POLITICAL
• BUT: Many Other Components Have Also
Become “Institutionalized” -- EX:
• Teaching Children – Formerly Task of FAMILY
• Absorbed by EDUCATIONAL Institution
• Leads to NEW INSTITUTIONS:
– EDUCATION; MEDIA; HEALTH; even “RECREATION”
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OTHER SOURCES OF
NEW INSTITUTIONS
• Various TYPES or COMPONENTS of Religion,
Economic, Political Structures, Organized as
Separate INSTITUTIONS
• EX: ECONOMY  BANKING; AGRICULTURE;
MANUFACTURING; RETAIL; FOOD SERVICE
• POLITICS  GOVERNMENT; LAW; PRISONS;
COURTS
• RELIGION INDIVIDUAL “RELIGIONS”
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SUMMARY: INSTITUTIONS
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An INSTITUTION Is NOT an “Organization”
An INSTITUTION IS:
A Specific Way of Organizing Human Behavior
In a Specific Sphere of Activity
Providing a Structure of Values, Values,
Beliefs, Rules for Behavior
• In That Particular Area of Social Life
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HOW DO INSTITUTIONS
“STRUCTURE” INEQUALITY?
• INTRODUCTORY EXAMPLES:
• Airplane Handling of Arabs, Muslims
– 6 Imams – Minneapolis Flight: Suspicious Praying
– Kareem Alasady (U.S. citizen): Pilot Refused to Fly
• Traffic Stops of “People of Color”
– Atty Robt Wilkins & Family – Stopped by MD
Police Instructed to Search for Drugs
– IL Test of Stops Police Stopped Investigator Chavez
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TERMINOLOGY
• PRETEXT STOPS: Use of Alleged Traffic “Violations”
As “Pretext” to Stop Motorists
• RACIAL PROFILING: Practice of Stopping People of
Color for Questioning
• Assumption: They Are More Likely to Be Engaged in
Criminal Activity
• NEARLY ALL People of Color Have Experienced This
• SUBURBAN Areas Particularly Common – AfricanAmericans 300% More Likely to Be Stopped
(Southern Poverty Law Center Research Studies)
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DEFINING INDIVIDUALS BY STATUS
• Status: Socially Defined Positions People Hold
in Society (Parent, Lawyer, Jew, Italian, etc.)
• “Profiling” Focuses on a SINGLE STATUS 
• “MASTER STATUS”: Status Society Considers
MOST IMPORTANT
• RACIAL (Ethnic, etc.) Is Often Considered Most
Important By Social Leaders, Power Groups
• Master Status “Trumps” All Others!
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STATUSES AS
CATEGORIES OF DIFFERENCE
• Purpose: Perpetuate the Past
• Privilege: Rights & Assets That Accompany
Statuses
– Some Earned – E.g., College Degrees
– Others Unearned – White, Black, Country Clubs
• Oppression: Domination or Submission
– Perpetuate Statuses – Upper & Lower
– Maintain the Existing Stratification System
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TYPES OF OPPRESSION
• Institutionalized Oppression:
– Built Into & Supported by Institutions
– Institutions (Family, Education, Courts) Maintain
Oppression (EX: Pretext Stops; “Legacy” Admissions)
• Interpersonal Oppression
– Manifested Between Individuals (Insults, Demeaning
Action to Member of Another Race, Religion, Gender)
• Internalized Oppression
– Directed at Oneself – One Accepts Subordinate Status
– Targeted Person Feels Demeaned, Offended, Insulted
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ROLE OF IDEOLOGY IN ESTABLISHING
& MAINTAINING INEQUALITY
• IDEOLOGY: Set of Cultural Patterns That Form a
Basis for Inequality
• Justify Interests of Dominant Group
• VALUES: Define What/Who Is Important
• BELIEFS: State What Is “True” About Groups
– Upper Class is Smarter; Lower Less Capable
• ATTITUDES: Describe Appropriate Feelings
– Southern Instruction to Child: “’Lady’ Is Applied to
Some White Women; Never to Black Women.”
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EXAMPLES OF
OPPRESSION IDEOLOGIES
• Androcentrism: Maintains Theory That Men Are
Superior to Women  Preserves Sex/Gender System
• Capitalistic Ideology: Preserves View That:
• Profits Are Primary; Workers Are Less Valuable; Justifiable
to Pay Them Less Than Others
• Oppression Involves: Systematic Barriers to Maintain
Certain People in a Subordinate Status (Frye, 1983)
• Birdcage Analogy: Use of Numerous, Tiny, Unnoticed
Barriers (Wires) – Not Recognized As Interconnected
Network Unless Viewed from a Macro Perspective
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DEFINING FORMS OF OPPRESSION
• Prejudice: Negative Attitude Toward
Members of a Group or Category
• Discrimination: Unequal Treatment Directed
Against People Based on Group Membership
• Institutionalized Racism: Systematic Policy or
Practice of Exploiting or Controlling People
Because of Perceived Physical Characteristics
• EX: Use of Native American Symbols as Sports
Mascots (Stanley Eitzen)
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“CLASSISM”:
SOCIAL CLASS OPPRESSION
• Use of Government Economic Policies to Benefit
Upper vs. Middle & Lower Classes
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Top 20% of U.S. Households  70% of Income
Bottom 20%  3.4% of Income
Top 20% of Population Owns 85% of Wealth
Bottom 80% Owns 15% of Wealth
• Tax Breaks: Wealthiest 1%: 53% of Tax Breaks
– Taxes Gradually Shifted From Investment to Wages
• Wealthy Person’s Dividends: 15% Tax Rate
• School Teacher ($28,000): 45% Tax Rate
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Proposed “9-9-9” Tax Reform Plan
Increased/Decreased Tax Liability
Bot 20%
2nd 20%
Mid 20% 4th 20%
Top 20%
Top 1%
Top 0.1%
+$1,854
+$3,898
+$4,330
-$14.4K
-$238K
-$2.3M
I
I
I
-$20K
I
I
---
I
I
-$235K
I
I
+$10K
-$10K
+$4,299
-----
I
-$1.35K
I
Derek Thompson, The Atlantic
http://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2011/10/rick-perrys
-tax-cut-for-the-rich-in-a-very-very-tall-graph/247635
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SEXISM & INSTITUTIONALIZED
EXPLOITATION BASED ON GENDER
• Systematic Discrimination Against Women in
Employment:
– Height or Attractiveness in Certain Jobs (Police Work;
Weight or Body Type in Casinos, “Hooters”)
• Job Discrimination Against Homosexuals
• Does NOT Require a Male Heterosexual to
Actually Behave in a Sexist Manner to Profit!
• Straight Males Gain an Advantage Simply By
Virtue of the Preference for Straight Males
– There Are More Positions Open to Them Than Others!
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UNCONSCIOUS & INTERCONNECTED
IMPACT OF INSTITUTIONS
• Institutionalized Patterns Are Viewed as “Just the
Way Things Are” – Unquestioned
• Interconnected Institutions Assist in Process:
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“Redlining “in Housing Covenants
Policies of Mortgage Brokers
Racial “Steering” of Real Estate Agents
Geographically Based School Districts
Geographical Location of Places of Employment
• Collectively Maintain Separate Races, Classes
• Ensure Each Gets “Appropriate” Life Chances
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INTERRELATING INSTITUTIONS
TO BE CONSIDERED
FAMILY
EDUCATION
ECONOMY & WORK
STATE & PUBLIC POLICY
MEDIA
LANGUAGE
RELIGION
VIOLENCE & PUBLIC POLICY
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INTERRELATING INSTITUTIONS
TO BE CONSIDERED (No. 1)
• Family
(Rubin, #17; Stacey, #19):
– Decreasing Wages 2 Parent Family; Child Care Costs
– Definitions & Policies: “Family Values” (Gay Families)
• Education:
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–
–
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(Kahlenberg, #20; Dog & Erdoes, #21; Sadkers, #22; Miceli, #23):
Cultural Capital  Differential School Experiences
Hidden Curriculum  Minorities Physical Discipline
Hidden Curriculum  Girls Learn Submissiveness
Hidden Curriculum  No “Aid” for Homosexuality 
“Heternormativity”  Reinforces Heterosexuality
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INTERRELATING INSTITUTIONS
TO BE CONSIDERED (No. 2)
• Economy & Work (Wilson, #24 Pager et al, #25; Wilson, #24):
– Unavailability of Employment in Ghettos
– White Applicants Favored in Employment
(Individuals Need NOT Discriminate to Benefit!)
– Policies Maintain Substantial Wage Gender Gap
• State & Public Policy (Burnbaum, #28; Western & Pettit, #29;
Wessler, #30):
– Child Welfare Policies Perpetuate Inequality of
Minority, Female-Headed Families
– Criminal Justice System Reinforces Inequality in
Prosecution & Punishment
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INTERRELATING INSTITUTIONS
TO BE CONSIDERED (No. 3)
• Media (#31 - #34):
– Sitcom Devaluing of Women, Working Class Men
– Enhancing the “Wisdom” of Middle Class Parents
– Few & Inaccurate Images of Varied Sex Categories
• Language: Defines Our World: Gender (#35-37):
– Fireman, Mankind, Manpower, Generic “he,” etc.
– Women Defined in Relation to Men (Miss, Mrs.)
– Trivialization of the Feminine: Stewardess; Lady
Lawyer; Lady Doctor
Language Defines Our World!
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INTERRELATING INSTITUTIONS
TO BE CONSIDERED (No. 4)
• Religion: Provides an Example – & Rules – For Perpetuating
Inequality
• Women Subordinate in Nearly All Religious Groups, Traditions
• Races Have Been Viewed as Subordinate in Many Religious Traditions
• Violence & Social Control Institutions:
• Violence Often Used As Social Control Mechanism
Law, #38; Armstrong, et al, #39; Kaufman, #40;):
(S Poverty
• “Beaner Hopping” – Teens Seek Hispanics to Beat Up (Prev. Ed.)
• Campus “Rape Culture”: Fear to Keep Women in Control
• Using Violence to Construct Masculinity to Perpetuate Subordination
of Others  Perpetuate White Male Dominance
• School Bullying; Cyberbulling (Schneider, et al., #41)
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SUMMARY
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Remainder of Course:
Focus on INSTITUTIONAL Basis of Inequality
Through Analysis of U.S. Institutions
The Manner in Which They Work Together …
To Perpetuate Inequality … and
The Existing Stratification Structure …
Making Systemic Change Nearly Impossible!
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Social Change Pyramid
How Long Will It Take?
Control
Who Is Most
Likely to Change?
Who Is Likely to
Resist Change?
Leaders
50+
Aspiring Leaders
What Is the Chance
Of Change Occurring?
Why?
Maintain Control
25-49
Children, Youth
Most Likely Changers
<25
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Social Change Pyramid
Interrelating Institutions
Control
Leaders
50+
Aspiring Leaders
STATE
Maintain Control MEDIA
ECONOMY
25-49
Children, Youth
SOCIAL CONTROL
RELIGION
LANGUAGE
Most Likely Changers
FAMILY
<25
EDUCATION
28