Travel Behavior, Transport Policy, and Sustainable
Transport in Germany and the USA
Similarities between Germany and the USA
•
Federal system of government, tradition of local self-government
•
Strong economy, high standard of living
•
Important automobile industry
•
Highest levels of car ownership in the world
•
Most adults have a driver’s license
•
Extensive road network
•
Much urban and suburban (re)development since World War II
Autobahn (A-5) in 2010.
First “Autobahn” , 1931, (Source: BMVBS, 2007)
Source: Buehler, R., Pucher, J., Kunert, U. 2009. “Making Transportation Sustainable: Insights from Germany,” Washington DC: The Brookings Institution, Metropolitan Policy Program.
Walking, Cycling, and Public Transport Share
of Trips in Europe and USA 1999-2008
60
Cycling
Walking
Public Transport
50
Percent of Trips
40
10
26
30
2
4
22
22
18
3
8
20
24
19
1
16
16
18
10
11
0
8
10
6
Belgium ('99)
France ('08)
UK ('08)
10
2
USA ('08)
7
9
5
Norway ('01) Denmark ('08) Germany ('08)Netherlands ('08)
Source: Data collected by author from recent national travel surveys.
Walking, Cycling, and Public Transport Contribute
to Reduced CO2 Emissions Per Capita
6.000
USA
Transport CO2 Emissions per Capita
Annual Tons of CO2 per capita
5.000
4.000
3.000
2.000
1.000
Canada
Australia
Ireland
Austria
Denmark
Belgium
Norway
UK
Sweden Spain
Finland
France
Netherlands
Germany
Walk, Bike, Public Transport Share of Trips
0.000
0
10
20
30
40
50
R² = 0.7356
Percent of trips by public transport, bicycle, and foot
Source: Buehler, R., Pucher, J. 2011. “Sustainable Transport in Germany: Lessons from Germany’s Environmental Capital,” International Journal of Sustainable Transportation, Vol. 5, pp. 43-70.
More sustainable urban travel in Germany
than in USA






~3 times more CO2 emissions per capita in USA
~3 times more energy use per capita in USA
2.2 times more traffic fatalities per capita in USA
U.S. households spend more for transport (17% vs.14% or
$2,500 per year)
Higher annual per capita government expenditures for roads and
public transport in the USA ($625 vs. $460)
Obesity rate more than twice as high in USA
1990
Source: own picture
2000
Source: own picture
2010
Walking, cycling, and daily physical
activity in Germany and the USA
Buehler, R., Pucher, R., Merom, D., Bauman, A. “Active Travel in Germany and the USA: Contributions of Daily Walking and Cycling to Physical Activity,” American Journal of Preventive Medicine, Vol. 40, No. 9, September
2011, pp. 241-250.
Share of All Trips
At all income levels Germans drive for a
lower share of trips than Americans
Source: Buehler, R. 2011. “Determinants of Mode Choice: A Comparison of Germany and the USA,” Transport Geography, in press.
Americans with limited car access drive as
much as Germans with easy car access
Source: Buehler, R. 2010. “Transport Policies, Automobile Use, and Sustainable Transportation: A Comparison of Germany and the USA,” Journal of Planning Education and Research, Vol. 30, 2010, pp. 76-93.
Americans drive more than Germans at
every population density
~60% of
Americans
live here
~60% of
Germans live
here
Source: Buehler, R. 2010. “Transport Policies, Automobile Use, and Sustainable Transportation: A Comparison of Germany and the USA,” Journal of Planning Education and Research, Vol. 30, 2010, pp. 76-93.
Percent of trips
Americans drive for most short trips
Source: Buehler, R. 2011. “Determinants of Mode Choice: A Comparison of Germany and the USA,” Transport Geography, in press.
Framework: Federal Policies in Germany





Taxes and regulation make car use more expensive
More funding for walking, cycling, and public transport
Land-use planning is stricter and requires cooperation
among levels of government
Strategic leadership through national transport and land-use
plans at the federal level
Specific policies developed and implemented at the local level
Case Study: FREIBURG
• 220,000 inhabitants, 120,000 jobs, 30,000 students
• Gateway to Black Forest region (620,000 pop.)
• Economy and population have grown faster than
German average
• Strong environmental policy since 1970s
• Germany’s environmental capital
• Important eco-industry (10,000 jobs, €500m GDP)
• Green Party mayor
Source: City of Freiburg
Thanks to Bernhard Gutzmer, Uwe Schade, Wulf Daseking (all city of Freiburg), Andreas Hildebrandt (VAG Freiburg)
Stagnating levels of motorization in Freiburg
(cars & light trucks per 1,000 population)
900
776
800
700
613
600
546
500
445
422 419
389
400
300
268
248
208
200
100
1950
1970
1990
2006
28
13
0
Freiburg
Germany
USA
Sources: (BMVBS, 1991-2008; City of Freiburg, 2009b; FHWA, 1990-2008)
See also: Buehler, R., Pucher, J. 2011. “Sustainable Transport in Germany: Lessons from Germany’s Environmental Capital,” International Journal of Sustainable Transportation, Vol. 5, pp. 43-70.
Declining share of trips by car
40
38
37
1982
1989
1999
2007
35
35
32
32
30
27
27
24
Percent of Trips
25
23
23
21
20
18
18
18
15
15
11
10
5
0
Car
Public Transport
Bike
Walk
Sources: (City of Freiburg, 2007; University of Dortmund, 2001)
See also: Buehler, R., Pucher, J. 2011. “Sustainable Transport in Germany: Lessons from Germany’s Environmental Capital,” International Journal of Sustainable Transportation, Vol. 5, pp. 43-70.
Sustainable Freiburg

VKT Car use declined by 7% from 1990 to 2005
 On

local roads: -13%
Per-capita CO2 emissions from transport: -13%
 Only

29% of U.S. average
Bicycle fatalities per 10 million km cycled:
 Freiburg:

1.2; Germany: 1.7 ; USA: 5.8
Public transport operating budget subsidy per year:
 Freiburg10%,
Germany 25%, USA 65%
Source: Buehler, R., Pucher, J. 2011. “Sustainable Transport in Germany: Lessons from Germany’s Environmental Capital,” International Journal of Sustainable Transportation, Vol. 5, pp. 43-70.
1950s
Source: City of Freiburg
1960s
Today
POLICIES THAT RESTRICT
CAR USE
Unleaded Gasoline Prices per Gallon in the USA and
Germany, 1990 - 2010 (in U.S. dollars, using PPP)
$8.0
$7.0
7.0
6.8
6.4
6.3
$6.0
5.6
Germany
5.1
$5.0
USA
4.6
$4.0
3.9
$3.0
2.9
2.6
2.7
2.9
3.1
3.2
3.9
4.0
4.2
3.5
3.3
3.1
3.0
2.9
2.7
2.6
2.4
2.3
2.6
2.1
$2.0
1.8
1.4
1.3
1.3
1.3
1.3
1.3
1.4
1.3
1.7
1.7
1.8
1.6
1.4
$1.0
$0.0
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
See also: Buehler, R., Pucher, J., Kunert, U. 2009. “Making Transportation Sustainable: Insights from Germany,” Washington DC: The Brookings Institution, Metropolitan Policy Program.
Environmental tax reform in Germany,
1999-2003
20
18.3
18
16
14.3
Billion Euros
14
11.5
12
10
Increased gasoline tax revenues used to
reduce social security taxes
8.8
8
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
0.0%
6
4
2
0
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
Source: UBA (2005 a and b), Schlegelmilch (2005)
Gasoline tax revenues quadrupled over 5
years.
% Reduction of Social Security Tax
Relative to Expected Level
4.3
-0.2%
-0.4%
-0.6%
-0.6%
-0.8%
-1.0%
-1.0%
-1.2%
-1.4%
-1.6%
-1.3%
-1.5%
-1.8%
-1.7%
Source: UBA (2005 a and b), Schlegelmilch (2005)
See also: Buehler, R., Pucher, J., Kunert, U. 2009. “Making Transportation Sustainable: Insights from Germany,” Washington DC: The Brookings Institution, Metropolitan Policy Program.
Highway user taxes and fees as share of road
expenditures by all levels of government in Germany
and the United States
Road
Expenditure
=
Highway User
Taxes and Fees
Source: Buehler, R., Pucher, J., Kunert, U. 2009. “Making Transportation Sustainable: Insights from Germany,” Washington DC: The Brookings Institution, Metropolitan Policy Program.
Freiburg: Traffic Calming of Neighborhoods
(Source: City of Freiburg)
Typical residential
street in Freiburg
BEFORE traffic
calming reforms
Typical residential
street in Freiburg
AFTER traffic calming
reforms
Traffic Calming throughout residential
neighborhoods in Freiburg
Improves safety and encourages more walking and cycling
(Source: City of Freiburg)
Traffic Calming also in
Freiburg suburbs
(Source: Pucher)
City Center
Pedestrian
Zone since
1973
(Source: City of Freiburg & own pictures)
Freiburg: Less parking and more expensive
Current
Planned
(Source: City of Freiburg)
Source: City of Freiburg
Muensterplatz 1960s
Source: City of Freiburg
Muensterplatz 2000
IMPROVING
PUBLIC TRANSPORT
Share of All Trips by Public Transport in
Selected German Cities, 2003-2007
Source: Buehler, R., Pucher, J. 2011. “Making Public Transport Financially Sustainable,” Transport Policy, Vol. 18, No. 1, pp. 128-136.
Regional Public Transport Authorities





Source: http://www.oepnv-info.de/dkarte/index.php
Integrate public transport fares and
timetables
Seamless transfers across operators
and public transport modes
Steep discounts for monthly/annual
tickets, students, and elderly
Goal: improving service and
connectivity
State-wide public transport tickets
 ~30 Euros for up to 5 people for entire
day during off-peak hours and on
weekends
Freiburg:
Regional Coordination of Services and Ticketing



Transferable “environmental” ticket since1984
Regional monthly ticket since 1991
Regional Public Transport Authority






75 towns, 187 operators, 3050km of routes
Annual ticket: 450 Euros
Students pay 69 Euros for 6 months
RegioMobil Card includes car sharing
Signal priority for light rail
Financial efficiency increased
(Source: City of Freiburg)
Trend in Annual Public Transport Trips in Selected
“Verkehrsverbunds" in Germany, 1991-2006
(in percent relative to 1991)*
Source: Buehler, R., Pucher, J. 2011. “Making Public Transport Financially Sustainable,” Transport Policy, Vol. 18, No. 1, pp. 128-136.
Passenger Revenue as Share of Public Transport
Operating Expenditure in Germany and the USA,
1992-2007
Source: Buehler, R., Pucher, J. 2011. “Making Public Transport Financially Sustainable,” Transport Policy, Vol. 18, No. 1, pp. 128-136.
Freiburg: Expanding light rail
(Source: City of Freiburg)
Attractive & convenient trams, buses, metros,
and suburban rail trains
Source: City of Freiburg
Source: City of Berlin
Source: author’s pictures if not indicated differently
Freiburg: Integration of modes
Suburban
and longdistance rail
Train station
Bus station
Light rail
Bike station: parking & rentals
(Source: Google Maps)
Multi-modal coordination
Source: Buehler, Pucher, Berkeley
PROMOTING BICYCLING
German “cycling boom” since the 1970s
Sources: Broeg and Erl, Mobilitaet und Verkehrsmittelwahl. Muenchen: Socialdata, 2003; Deutsches Institut fuer Wirtschaftswissenschaften, Mobilitaet in Deutschland, 2002, Stadt Koeln Berlin: Bundesministerium
fuer Verkehr, 2004.
Federal involvement in bicycling
•National bicycling plan (2002)
•Flexible funding mechanisms (GVFG)
•Construction of bike paths along
federal roads
•€1.1 billion to doubling the extent
of bikeways along federal highways
from 1980 to 2000
•Technical expertise (BAST)
(Source: BMVBS)
Extensive, fully-integrated bikeway network in
Freiburg
Crucial to have full
connectivity of cycling
facilities!
(Source: City of Freiburg)
Bicycle Infrastructure: Lanes, Streets, Paths, Boxes
(Source: City of Freiburg, Swearingen White, and own pictures)
Most German cities feature safe
and attractive bike paths
Note exclusive cycle path in middle and completely
separate pedestrian walkways on both sides
Bikeable German suburbs
Most new suburban
developments have sidewalks
and cycle paths
This design further
separates cyclists
from motor
vehicles
Pucher: Walking and Cycling for Health
Cycling
training and
testing course
in Berlin
Most German children take
cycling lessons by the 3rd or 4th
grade and must pass a policeadministered cycling safety test!
(Source: own pictures)
German law strongly favors pedestrians and cyclists over motorists
(Source: Fahrschule24.net)
INTEGRATE TRANSPORT AND
LAND-USE PLANNING
Freiburg: Complementary Goals of most Recent
Transport and Land–Use Plans

Goals of Land-Use Planning:
 Improve
quality of life
 Create a “City of Short Distances”
 Strengthen Freiburg as regional center
 Preserve city center as historical district

Goals of Transport Planning
 Minimize
car travel
 Shift car trips to other modes
 Mitigate harmful impacts of cars
See also: Buehler, R., Pucher, J. 2011. “Sustainable Transport in Germany: Lessons from Germany’s Environmental Capital,” International Journal of Sustainable Transportation, Vol. 5, pp. 43-70.
Freiburg: 80% of all residents live within 0.5
kilometers of light rail
(Source: City of Freiburg)
Accommodating growth within city limits
(Source: City of Freiburg)
Vauban & Rieselfeld Neighborhoods
(Source: Berkeley and Loeffler)
Lessons for Implementing Sustainable Transport
Policies






Sustainable transport policies must be long term, with
policies sustained over time, for lasting impact
Policies must be multi-modal and include both
incentives and disincentives
Fully integrate transport and land-use planning
Implement controversial policies in stages
Plans should be adaptable over time to changing
conditions
Citizen involvement is an integral part of policy
development and implementation
Lessons for Implementing Sustainable Transport
Policies
Expand
Transit
Complete Bike
Network
Traffic
Calming
Bundling
Car Traffic
Parking
Management
Integrated Land-Use and Transportation Planning
Thank you!
Ralph Buehler, Assistant Professor
Urban Affairs and Planning
Virginia Tech, Alexandria Center
ralphbu@vt.edu
Phone: 703-701-8104
http://www.nvc.vt.edu/uap/people/rbuehler.html
http://ralphbu.wordpress.com/