Chapter 21
Sustainable Approaches:
Industrial Ecology and
Pollution Prevention
1. Industrial Ecology
Overview
• Industrial ecology refers to a multidisciplinary, systems
approach to the flow of energy and materials between
production and the environment
• Main objectives
– To promote ways to use recycled waste from one
production process as inputs in another process
– To optimize material flows (i.e., achieve an efficient
use of materials and energy in production)
• Since flow of materials is integral to industrial ecology,
the materials balance model should be revisited
2
Materials Balance Model Revisited
At issue is whether the flow of materials from nature through the
economy is linear, (i.e., operating in only one direction), and open OR
cyclical and closed
3
Conventional Linear (or Open) Materials Flow
This “cradle-to-grave” open flow assumes materials run in
ONE direction, entering as resources and leaving as
wastes or residuals. Policy focus would have to be aimed
at abating contaminants ONLY at the end of the flow.
4
Linear (or Open) Materials Flow
• Policy based on a linear flow assumption does not
fully address the long-run implications of
pollution
– Nature’s capacity to convert matter to energy is
limited
– End-of-pipe policy controls take the form of
abatement after the damage has been done
• Solution should consider a cyclical flow approach
5
Cyclical (or Closed) Materials Flow
• A cyclical flow assumes that…
– productive activity can be altered throughout the
cycle to reduce environmental effects
• e.g., product design, manufacturing processes,
energy use
– residuals (i.e., wastes or pollution) can be brought
back into useful production
• Implies that policy can be aimed anywhere in the
cycle of production and consumption rather than only
at “end-of-pipe”
6
A Closed System of Materials Flow
A “cradle-to-cradle” flow that assumes materials run in a
circular pattern in a closed system that allows residuals (or
wastes) to be brought back into the production process.
7
Using a Cyclical Flow in Practice
a. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)
• Examines the environmental impact of a product or process at
all stages from resource use to disposal
• 4 components
– Goal definition and scoping: describes the product and
environmental effects to be assessed
– Inventory analysis: analyzes resource usage and
environmental releases
– Impact analysis: determines human & environmental effects
– Interpretation: evaluates results and selects product/process
• Addressed by ISO 14000 International Standards
– Voluntary standards in environmental management aimed at
giving countries a common approach to environmental
issues
8
b. Industrial Ecosystems
A Real-World Closed System
• Wastes from one production process are used
as inputs in another
• Usually implemented through a collaborative of
several firms, an eco-industrial park
• Real-world examples include systems in
– Kalundborg, Denmark
– Choctaw, MS
9
10
Industrial Ecosystem at Kalundborg, Denmark
• An industrial ecosystem has been established
which involves an oil refinery, a wallboard plant,
a pharmaceutical plant, fish farms, and a coalfired power plant, among others.
11
Industrial Ecosystem at Kalundborg, Denmark
• Steam and various raw materials such as sulfur,
fly ash and sludge are exchanged in what is the
world's most elaborate industrial ecosystem.
Participating firms each benefit economically
from reduce costs for waste disposal, improved
efficiencies of resource use and improved
environmental performance. For example, gas
captured from the oil refinery which had
previously been flared off is now sent to the
electrical power station which expects to save
the equivalent of 30,000 tonnes of coal a year.
12
2. Pollution Prevention (P2)
Overview
• Pollution prevention is a long-term, front-end
strategy aimed at reducing or eliminating the
toxicity or the amount of residuals at their
source
• Preventive objectives
– Source reduction: reducing pollutants at point
of generation
– Toxic chemical use substitution: substituting
less harmful chemicals for toxic ones
13
How P2 Differs from Industrial Ecology
• P2 promotes risk reduction by eliminating or
minimizing wastes, while industrial ecology uses
wastes as inputs
– P2 solutions are aimed at a single firm, while
industrial ecology is used by a collaborative of firms
• P2 does not view recycling as preventive, while
industrial ecology views recycling as the solution
• P2 generally requires government oversight, while
industrial ecology does not
14
P2 Techniques
• Source segregation
– Keep hazardous waste from mingling with
nonhazardous waste
• Raw materials substitution
– Use inputs that result in little or no hazardous waste
• Changes in manufacturing processes
– Use methods that generate fewer hazardous byproducts
• Product Substitution
– Use relative safe goods instead of polluting products
15
P2 Legislation
• National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA)
– Encourages efforts to prevent environmental damage
– Integrates pollution prevention into U.S.
environmental legislation
• Pollution Prevention Act of 1990
– P2 is the primary objective: “pollution should be
prevented or reduced at the source, whenever
feasible”
– The secondary objective is management of residuals
through recycling, treatment, and disposal – in that
order
• Similar legislation exists in other nations: EU, Canada,
Australia
16
Pollution Prevention Hierarchy
SOURCE REDUCTION
RECYCLING
TREATMENT
DISPOSAL
17
Selected Corporation Examples of P2 Initiatives
Dell, Inc.
In 2008, reduced packaging by 5,440 tons; recycled and
reused over 95 percent of nonhazardous wastes from
manufacturing operations; recovered 116 million kilograms
of discards. Offers free recycling of its products to
customers worldwide. Committed to reducing its carbon
intensity by 15 percent by 2012 relative to 2006.
AnheuserBusch
Companies,
Inc.
Between 2003 to 2007, reduced hazardous waste by 15.8
percent and solid waste by 23.8 percent, with some of the
latter accomplished through “light-weighting,” i.e.,
changes in packaging design. Reduced GHG emissions
by 4.3 percent over the same period.
Eastman
Kodak
Between 1999 and 2005, achieved a 44 percent
emissions reduction of 30 priority chemicals and a 17
percent reduction in CO2 emissions; reduced energy use
by 19 percent, water usage by 36 percent, and
manufacturing waste by 47 percent.
18
Economics and P2
• Cost-effectiveness as a criterion
– Whether a firm adopts P2 will depend in part on its
cost relative to other options, like treatment or
abatement
– If P2 is chosen, cost-effectiveness can guide the
selection of the appropriate strategy
• Efficiency as a criterion
– Benefit-cost analysis can be used to determine the
extent to which a P2 strategy is implemented
19
3. Sustainable Initiatives and Programs
(1) Extended Product Responsibility (EPR)
• Refers to efforts aimed at identifying and reducing lifecycle environmental effects of products
– Sometimes called Product Stewardship
• Underlying premise is that all participants in the product
chain—designers, manufacturers, distributors, consumers,
recyclers, remanufacturers, and disposers—are
responsible for a product’s effect on the environment
– Involves raw materials selection, production impacts,
product use, products at end-of-life (i.e., take-back
programs to achieve recycling or remanufacturing)
20
(2) Design for the Environment (DfE)
• Promotes using environmental considerations
with cost and performance in product
development and design
• Directly uses a cyclical flow of materials
• Used by BMW, Dell Computer, 3M, and others
21
(3) Green Chemistry Program
• Promotes development and use of chemical
technologies that achieve pollution prevention
– Sometimes known as benign chemistry or
sustainable chemistry programs
• Recognizes the importance of a product’s life
cycle in pollution prevention
– Seeks safer alternatives to hazardous chemicals,
resulting in lower risks, safer production processes,
and final products that pose less of a threat at the
end of their economic lives
22
4. Global Information Sharing
Technology Transfer
• Refers to the advancement and application of
technologies and strategies on a global scale
• Is considered critical to consistent progress
toward sustainable development
• Relies on interdependent factors that include
research, physical capital investment,
communication, financial resources, education
23
Achieving Environmental Literacy
• Refers to an awareness of the risks of pollution
and natural resource depletion
• Promoting environmental education worldwide
has grown and was an important theme at the
1992 Earth Summit in Rio
– Agenda 21 specifically refers to the
importance of education, public awareness,
and training to implement the global agenda
24