Chapter 4 The Terrestrial Environment 陸地的環境 1 4.1 Life on Land Imposes Unique Constraints 陸地上的生命承受獨特的限制 2 陸地環境對生命的限制 • 乾燥效應。(desiccation) • 重力作用。(gravity) • 環境因子的變動大小(例如:溫 度)。 3 The giant kelp: Macrocystis pyrifera 4 A redwood wood: Sequoia sempervirens 5 4.2 Plant Cover Influences the Vertical Distribution of Light 植物的覆蓋影響光線的垂直分佈 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 植物對光線的吸收及反射情形 13 leaf area index (LAI)(葉面積指數) 14 Leaf area index (LAI) 葉面積指數 • 定義: 葉的表面積除以植物在地表的 投影面積 (m2 leaf area/ m2 ground area) . • A leaf area index of 3 would mean that there are 3 m2 of leaf area over 1 m2 of ground area. 15 「葉面積指數」高低 的意義何在? 16 葉片的生長方向影響其截留陽光的量 17 紅木森林在地表部分的可利用光線的變化情形 18 Levels of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR), within and above a yellow-poplar stand over a year. 19 4.3 Soil Is the Foundation Upon Which All Terrestrial Life Depends 土壤是所有陸地生命依賴的基礎 20 Soil definition(土壤的定義) • Soil is a natural product formed and synthesized by the weathering of rocks and the action of living organisms. • (土壤是岩石的風化作用與生物 活動形成的天然產物) 21 Soil definition (土壤的定義) • Soil is a collection of natural bodies of earth, composed of mineral and organic matter and capable of supporting plant growth. • 土壤是地表聚積的自然體,由無機 物及有機物組成,能支持植物的生 長。 22 4.4 The Formation of Soil Begins with Weathering 土壤的形成開始於風化作用 23 Weathering (風化作用) • Mechanical weathering(物理風化作 用): breaks down rock and minerals into smaller particles.(透過物理作用 將岩石或礦物變成小顆粒) • Chemical weathering(化學風化作 用): 24 4.5 Soil Formation Involves Five Interrelated Factors 土壤的形成包含五個相關的因子 25 土壤形成的五個因子 • Parental material (母岩) • Climate (氣候) • Biotic factors (生物因子) • Topography (地形) • Time (時間) 26 27 4.6 Soils Have Certain Distinguishing Physical Characteristics 土壤具有某些可區分的物理性質 28 Soil texture(土壤特徵(組成)) • Soil texture is the proportion of different-sized soil particles. • • • • Gravel(砂礫): larger than 2.0 mm. Sand(沙): from 0.05 to 2.0 mm. Silt(泥沙): from 0.002 to 0.05 mm. Clay(黏土): less than 0.002 mm. 29 Soil texture(土壤特徵) • Gravel is not part of the fine fraction of soil. • A soil texture is the percentage (by weight) of sand, silt, and clay. • Clay controls the most important properties of soils, including its water holding capacity, and the exchange of ions between soil particles and soil solution. 30 A soil texture chart, which shows the percentages of clay, silt, and sand in the basic soil texture classes. 31 4.7 The Soil Body Has Horizontal Layers, or Horizons 土壤有水平的層狀結構 32 土壤的層狀結構 33 一般的土壤剖面 34 土壤剖面圖 35 4.8 Moisture-Holding Capacity Is an Essential Feature of Soils 水分保持能力是土壤的重要特徵 36 Moisture-holding capacity of soil • Saturated(飽和): the amount of water exceeds what the pore space of soil can hold. • Field capacity(田間容量): Water fills all the pore spaces of soil and is hold there by internal capillary forces.(水分以毛細 作用充滿土壤中所有的孔隙) • Capillary water(毛細水): Water held between soil particles by capillary forces. (水分以毛細作用為土壤所保留) 37 Moisture-holding capacity of soil • Wilting point (WP): The moisture level of soil decreases to a point at which plants can no longer extract water. • 枯萎點:土壤中的水分減少到植物 無法從中獲得水分,此土壤之含水 量稱為枯萎點。 38 Moisture-holding capacity of soil • Available water capacity (AWC): The amount of water retained by the soil between field capacity and wilting point. • 可利用的水容量: 39 Water content of three different soils at wilting point (WP), field capacity (FC), and saturation. 40 4.9 Ion Exchange Capacity Is Important to Soil Fertility 離子交換容量對土壤肥沃度很重要 41 Ion(離子) • Cation(陽離子): with positive charge(s)(帶正電荷的離子) • Anion(陰離子): with negative charge(s)(帶負電荷的離子) 42 Ion exchange(離子交換) • Ion exchange capacity(離子交換容量): The total number of charged sites on soil particles within a volume of soil.(一定體積土壤內的 帶電荷離子位置總數目) • Colloids(膠狀體):土壤中帶負電荷的離子 • Cation exchange capacity(陽離子交換容量) 43 土壤中的陽離子交換過程 44 Ion exchange • The lyotropic series : • Al3+ > H+ > Ca2+ > Mg2+ > K+ = NH4+ > Na+ • Hydrogen ions (H+ ) effect: Al3+ 45 Soil acidity • Typically, soils range from pH 3 (extremely acid) to pH 9 (strongly alkaline).(土壤的酸鹼值一般從pH 3-9) • Soils just over pH 7 (neutral) are considered basic, and those of pH 5.6 or below are acid. 46 4.10 Basic Soil Formation Processes Produce Different Soils 基礎的土壤形成過程中產生不 同的土壤 47 世界上主要土壤類型的剖面及基本描述 48 世界上主要土壤類型的剖面及基本描述 49 主要土壤類型在世界上的分佈 50 五種主要土壤的形成過程 • • • • • Laterization: 紅土化 Calcification: 石灰化 Salinization: 鹽化 Podzolization: 灰壤化 Gleization 51 Laterization(紅土的形成過程) • 炎熱、多雨的氣候迅速風化岩石, 大量雨水造成離子、養分的高淋蝕, 只留下鐵及鋁的氧化物。 • 鐵的氧化物是土壤紅色的原因。 • Ultisol 52 Laterization (紅土的形成過程) 53 Calcification(石灰化) • 發生在植物的蒸散作用超過降雨量的情 況,使土壤中溶解性鹽類上升。 • 降雨又將鹽類往土壤深層帶。 • 在土壤B層形成礦物沈積,通常是 CaCO3 ,形成所謂鈣化層(Caliche)。 54 Calcification(石灰化) 55 Salinization(鹽化) • 發生在乾燥地區,形成過程類似鈣 化作用。 • 鹽類沈積在地表或接近地表處。 • 發生在沙漠、海岸或灌溉的農業區。 56 Salinization(鹽化) 57 Podzolization(灰壤化) • 發生在寒冷、潮濕的中緯度地區的針葉 林環境。 • 針葉樹的有機質形成強酸性物質,酸淋 洗掉土壤A層中的陽離子及鐵、鋁氧化 物,使A層下方成白色或灰色。 • Spodosol。 58 Podzolization(灰壤化) 59 Gleization • 發生在高降雨量但排水不良之低窪 地區。 • 排水不良使的有機物質大量堆積, 形成的有機酸與土壤中鐵產生化學 作用,形成黑色或藍灰色土壤。 • Gelisol。 60 Gleization 61 農業與土壤鹽化 62 Dry land salinization 63