Research Results on Land Use, Transportation, and
Community Design
(For slides related to walking/biking to school, please see the set titled
School Environment and Active Transportation to School)
Active Living Research
www.activelivingresearch.org
A national program of the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation
Any of the slides contained in this set are available for public use. If you have
comments or questions about a particular slide, please contact Debbie Lou at
dlou@projects.sdsu.edu
Data from the 2001 National Household Travel Survey (N=3,312) show that 29% of public transit
users achieve the Surgeon General’s recommendation of 30 minutes or more of physical activity
a day while walking to and from transit. Racial/ethnic minorities reported even greater
percentages of achieving the recommended level of activity.
50%
Percent walked
30+minutes/day
41%
40%
39%
33%
30%
20%
18%
10%
0%
White
African
American
Asian/Pacific
Islander
Hispanic
Public Transit Users
Besser L, Dannenberg A. Walking to public transit: Steps to help meet physical activity recommendations.
American Journal Preventive Medicine 2005; 29(4): 273-280.
% meeting physical activity
guidelines
A study of 357 Atlanta adults using accelerometer data found people who live in
walkable neighborhoods are more likely to meet recommended daily levels of
physical activity.
Residents of walkable neighborhoods were
more likely to meet physical activity guidelines
50%
40%
37%
30%
18%
20%
10%
0%
High walkability
Low walkability
Frank LD, Schmid TL, Sallis JF, Chapman J, Saelens BE. Linking objectively measured physical activity with objectively measured urban form. Findings
from SMARTRAQ. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 2005; 28(2S2):117-125.
A national study of US adolescents (N=20,745)* found a greater number of
physical activity facilities is directly related to increased physical activity and
inversely related to risk of overweight
Odds ratio
1.5
Odds of having 5 or more
bouts of MVPA
1.25
1.26
Referent 1
0.75
Odds of being
overweight
.68
0.5
One
Two
Three
Four
Five
Six
Seven
Number of facilities per block group
*using Add Health data
Gordon-Larsen P, Nelson MC, Page P, Popkin BM. Inequality in the built environment underlies key health disparities in physical activity and obesity.
Pediatrics 2006; 117(2): 417-424. http://www.pediatrics.org/cgi/content/full/117/2/417
A study of 33 California cities found that adults who drove the most had
obesity rates (27%) that were three times higher than those who drove the
least (9.5%).
Driving is a risk factor for obesity
30%
27%
% obese (BMI>30)
25%
18%
20%
14%
15%
10%
10%
5%
0%
Highest Quarter
Lowest Quarter
Vehicle miles traveled
Lopez-Zetina J, Lee H, Friis R. The link between obesity and the built environment. Evidence from an ecological analysis of obesity and vehicle miles
of travel in California. Health & Place 2006; 12(4):656-664.
A survey of 1,148 adults living in the southeastern US found that the number of
adults who met physical activity guidelines was 15% higher in neighborhoods
with sidewalks.
% meeting physical activity guidelines
Adults with sidewalks in their neighborhoods were more
likely to meet physical activity guidelines
50%
44%
38%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Sidewalks present
No sidewalks
present
Reed JA, Dawn K, Wilson DK, et al. Perceptions of neighborhood sidewalks on walking and physical activity patterns in a southeastern
community in the US. Journal of Physical Activity and Health 2006; 3(2):243-253.
% walking and biking for transportation
A 2007 study of 6,694 residents in 67 North Carolina counties found those living
in counties with the highest “Active Community Environment” (ACE) scores*
were more than twice as likely to walk and bike for transportation than
residents in counties with the lowest ACE scores.
40%
35%
31%
30%
25%
20%
15%
13%
10%
5%
0%
Low ACE
High ACE
* High ACE scores were determined mainly by the number of land use policies, and also implementation tools,
supportive of non-motorized transportation implementation and/or mixed land use.
Aytur SA, Rodriguez DA, et al. Promoting active community environments through land use and transportation planning. American Journal of
Health Promotion 2007; 21(4;S4):397-407.
Pedometer data collected from over 100 New Jersey train and car commuters
revealed that those who commuted by train walked 30% more steps a day and
were 4 times more likely to meet recommended 10,000 steps daily than car
commuters.
Daily steps are higher among adults who commute
by train instead of car
Average Daily Steps
(pedometer)
10000
9500
9000
8000
7500
7000
6000
Train
Car
Commuting Mode
Wener RE, Evans GW. A morning stroll: Levels of physical activity in car and mass transit commuting. Environment and Behavior
2007; 39(1): 62-74.
Percent of Children with Walking
Trip Over 2 Days
Data collected in 2001-2002 from 3,161 Atlanta children show 5 to 18 year olds
were more likely to walk for transportation if they lived in mixed-used
neighborhoods with parks, schools, and commercial destinations nearby.
Frank L, Kerr J, Chapman J, Sallis J. Urban form relationships with walk trip frequency and distance among youth. American Journal of
Health Promotion 2007; 21(4S): 305.
ALR Funded
Cross-sectional (N=70) and prospective (N=32)
data collected during 2003-6 from
predominantly low-income, African-American
women in the southeastern United States
found women who moved to neighborhoods
with fewer cul-de-sacs walked more on
average, while women who moved to
neighborhoods with greater land-use mix
walked less on average.
Wells NM, Yang Y. Neighborhood Design and Walking: A quasi-experimental longitudinal study. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 2008; 34(4):
313-319.
A study of 63 large metropolitan statistical areas from 1990 to 2002 found
residents in MSAs with state mandated urban growth boundaries reported
about 53 minutes more of leisure time physical activity (LTPA) per week than
residents without such policies.
Average minutes/week of LTPA
Residents who live in metropolitan areas with urban growth
restrictions report having more leisure time physical activity
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
178
125
Yes
No
Presence of state-mandated urban growth boundaries
Aytur SA, Rodriguez DA, Evenson KR, Catellier DJ. Urban containment policies and physical activity: A time-series analysis of metropolitan areas, 1990-2002.
American Journal of Preventive Medicine 2008; 34(4):320-332.
ALR Funded
Number of Studies
A review of original studies published in 2005 to 2006 found walking for
transportation is most strongly related to living in neighborhoods with high
residential density, mixed land use, and short distances to destinations.
Saelens BE, Handy SL. Built environment correlates of walking: A review. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise 2008: 40(7:S1):S550-S566.
National survey data collected in 2003 from 5,873 people, and 2005 from
12,630 people, show public support for traditionally designed communities
increased from 44% in 2003 to almost 60% in 2005.
Support for Traditonally Designed Communities Increased
between 2003 and 2005
Percent expressing support
100%
80%
59%
60%
44%
40%
20%
0%
2003
2005
Handy SL, Sallis JS, et al. Is support for traditionally designed communities growing? Evidence from two national surveys. Journal of the American Planning
Association 2008; 74(2): 209-221.
National survey data collected in 2003 from 5,873 people and 2005 from 12,630
people show public support for traditionally designed communities increased
across almost all subgroups.
Percent increase in average support for traditionally designed
communities between 2003 and 2005 by education, race, perceived
location and walking status
20%
percent increase in support
17%
17%
17%
16%
15%
15%
15%
14%
10%
10%
5%
0%
High
School or
less
College or
more
White
Non-White
Rural
Non-Rural
Walker
Non-Walker
Handy SL, Sallis JS, et al. Is support for traditionally designed communities growing? Evidence from two national surveys. Journal of the American Planning
Association 2008; 74(2): 209-221.
National survey data collected in 2003 from
5,873 people and in 2005 from 12,630 people
on public support for traditionally designed
communities show the ability to walk or bike
around their neighborhoods increased the
most in importance ratings.
Handy SL, Sallis JS, et al. Is support for traditionally designed communities growing? Evidence from two national surveys. Journal of the American
Planning Association 2008; 74(2): 209-221.
The characteristics of living in traditionally designed
communities that increased the most in importance
were:
1. Being able to walk or bike to shopping
2. Being able to walk or bike to work
3. Being able to walk or bike to public transportation
Handy SL, Sallis JS, et al. Is support for traditionally designed communities growing? Evidence from two national surveys.
Journal of the American Planning Association 2008; 74(2): 209-221.
National survey data collected in 2003 from
5,873 people and in 2005 from 12,630 people
on public support for traditionally designed
communities indicate the biggest advantages of
walkable communities were the benefits they
provide to children and seniors.
Handy SL, Sallis JS, et al. Is support for traditionally designed communities growing? Evidence from two national surveys. Journal of the American Planning
Association 2008; 74(2): 209-221.
Top five expectations about traditionally designed communities,
2005
1. Allow kids to walk to school
2. Be safe for kids to play in neighborhood
3. Enable people to walk/bike to public transit
4. Enable people to walk/bike to shopping
5. Enable older adults to live independently
Handy SL, Sallis JS, et al. Is support for traditionally designed communities growing? Evidence from two
national surveys. Journal of the American Planning Association 2008; 74(2): 209-221.
Cross-sectional data on residents (N=1,497) in northern California show that, after
controlling for sociodemographic and attitudinal variables, certain neighborhood
characteristics are significantly associated with physical activity frequency within the
neighborhood
Neighborhood Characteristic
Standardized
Coefficients
P values
# of business types within 400m
.05
.02
Distance to nearest health club (km)
.06
.004
Perceived physical activity options
.04
.08
Perceived socializing
.04
.03
Perceived attractiveness
.09
.00
Perceived stores within walking distance
.05
.004
Handy SL, Cao X, Mokhtarian PL. The causal influence of neighborhood design on physical activity within the neighborhood: Evidence from Northern
California. American Journal of Health Promotion 2008; 22(5):350-357.
Self-reported data collected in 2001 from 546 adults ages 65+ in Portland, Oregon reveal among those who reported some
walking activity, the average amount of time spent walking per week was significantly associated with the amount of
automobile traffic and number of commercial establishments in their neighborhood.
Built environment features are associated with higher levels of walking time
among older adults
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#
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Built environment features
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Difference in minutes of walking time due to attributes
st
re
et
s
20
(Orange columns denote significant results)
-20
Nagel CL, Carlson NE, et al. The relation between neighborhood built environment and walking activity among older adults. American Journal of
Epidemiology 2008; 168(4): 461-468.
Spivock M, Gauvin L, Riva M, Brodeur J-M. Promoting active living among people with physical disabilities: Evidence for Neighborhood-level buoys.
American Journal of Preventive Medicine 2008; 34(1): 291-298.
Yearly percentages of total bicycle- and pedestrian-related projects and federal
funding obligations implemented between 1990 and 2004, Fiscal Management
Information System 1990–2004
ISTEA, Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act; STEA-2003, Surface Transportation Extension Act-2003; TEA-21, Transportation Act for the
21st century
Cradock A, Troped PJ, Fields B, et al. Factors associated with federal transportation funding for local pedestrian and
bicycle programming and facilities. Journal of Public Health Policy 2009; 30(S1): S38-S72.
ALR Funded
Disparities in implementation of federally funded bicycle and
pedestrian projects
Counties with persistent poverty (OR=.69)
or low educational status (OR=.66) were less
likely to implement projects
Cradock A, Troped PJ, Fields B, et al. Factors associated with federal transportation funding for local pedestrian and
bicycle programming and facilities. Journal of Public Health Policy 2009; 30(S1): S38-S72.
ALR Funded
Policy recommendations for improving public health
outcomes of federally funded bicycle and pedestrian
projects
• Improved data tracking and monitoring systems to
improve data accessibility and allow for transparent
assessment of spending decisions
• More explicit linkages between transportation
projects and public health, and
• Improved planning assistance to underserved
communities
Cradock A, Troped PJ, Fields B, et al. Factors associated with federal transportation funding for local pedestrian and bicycle
programming and facilities. Journal of Public Health Policy 2009; 30(S1): S38-S72.
ALR Funded
Importance of factors in bicycle route choice among adult cyclists in
Portland, OR (N=166)
Mean score
(1=not at all important, 5=very important)
Minimize total distance
Avoiding streets with lots of vehicle traffic
Riding in a bike lane
Riding on signed bike routes
Reducing wait time due to stop signs/lights
Riding on an off-street bike trail/path
Avoiding hills
3.60
3.57
2.95
2.62
2.67
2.21
2.10
Note: Exercise trips excluded.
Dill, J. Bicycling for transportation and health: The role of infrastructure. Journal of Public Health Policy; 2009; 30(S1):S95-S110.
ALR Funded
Recommendations to encourage more bicycling
among adults
• Well-connected network of low-traffic neighborhood streets
• Bike lanes should be networked with paths and bike boulevards
• Zoning standards that support mixed land use
These can be accomplished through comprehensive planning, regulation, and
funding
Dill, J. Bicycling for transportation and health: The role of infrastructure. Journal of Public Health Policy; 2009; 30(S1):S95-S110.
ALR Funded
Distribution of recorded bicycle travel by facility type, compared to
network mileage (based on 166 adult cyclists in Portland, OR).
Location of travel assessed by GPS.
% of all bicycle
travel (miles)
% of network
51
92
Primary roads/highways, no bicycle lanes
4
4
Secondary roads, no bicycle lanes
19
13
Minor streets, no bicycle lanes
27
63
Driveways, alleys, unimproved roads
2
12
49
8
Primary roads/highway, with bicycle lanes
9
3
Secondary roads, with bicycle lanes
14
2
Minor streets, with bicycle lanes
3
1
Bicycle/multi-use paths
14
2
Bicycle boulevards
9
<1
7,479
10,564
Roads without bicycle infrastructure
Bicycle Infrastructure
N (miles)
Dill, J. Bicycling for transportation and health: The role of infrastructure. Journal of Public Health Policy; 2009; 30(S1):S95-S110.
ALR Funded
Self-reported data* from seniors in Denver, CO (N=190) found that total
physical activity and community-based activity were highest in
neighborhoods with fewer walkability variables but higher respondent
perceptions of safety and social cohesion (p<.01).
* data from the Neighborhoods and Senior Health (NASH) study
King D. Neighborhood and individual factors in activity in older adults: Results from the neighborhood and senior health study. Journal of Aging and
Physical Activity 2008; 16:144-170.
ALR Funded
Certain subgroups of adults are more likely to walk for
transportation in high density areas
Population
White
Odds
ratio
1.97
Male
1.78
No college degree
2.07
Less than healthy
2.45
N=716 adults in the Twin Cities metropolitan area of Minnesota
Forsyth A, Oakes JM, et al. The built environment, walking, and physical activity: Is the environment more important to
some people than others? Transportation Research Part D 2009; 14:42-49.
Pedestrians in New York City are less safe
from vehicular traffic in poor neighborhoods*
30%
24%
Percent/square km
25%
20%
18%
15%
10%
5%
0%
Nonpoor
Poor
Density of pedestrian-vehicular collisions
per square km
*Based on US Census data (N=2,172) and observation of 76 block faces
Neckerman KM, Lovasi GS, Davies S, et al. Disparities in urban neighborhood conditions: Evidence from GIS measures and
field observation in New York City. Journal of Public Health Policy 2009; 30(S1): S264-S285.
ALR Funded
A study of 3318 nine and ten-year old children across Southern California over an eight year
period found children who lived the closest to dense traffic had the highest risk of gaining
weight by age 18.
-95% CI
Est. Effects
Jerrett M, McConnell R, et al. Automobile traffic around the home and attained body mass index: A longitudinal cohort study of
children aged 10-18 years. Preventive Medicine 2010; 50(S1):S50-S58.
Data on 2692 low-income women from the CDC’s WISEWOMAN study
found the average body mass index (BMI) of women who lived in areas
with the most mixed land use was 2.60 kg/m2 lower than the BMI of
women living in environments with the least mixed land use.
Mobley LR, Root ED, Finkelstein EA, et al. Environment, obesity, and cardiovascular disease risk in low-income
women. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 2006; 30(4): 327-332.
A study of 17,968 African-American women living in New York City, Chicago, and Los Angeles
found women who lived in neighborhoods that had more dense urban form were significantly less
likely to become obese over six years.
Likelihood of becoming obese
(Incidence rate ratio)
Significant trend (p=.042)
Degree of Urban Density
Coogan PF et al. Longitudinal Assessment of Urban Form and Weight Gain in African-American Women.
American Journal of Preventive Medicine 2011; 40(4): 411-418.
Difference in average amount of
weight change over 6 years
A study of 17,968 African-American women living in New York City, Chicago, and Los Angeles found
women who lived in neighborhoods that had more dense urban form gained significantly less weight over
six years.
Quintile 1
Least Urban
Quintile 2
Quintile 3
Quintile 4
Quintile 5
Most Urban
Degree of Urban Density
Coogan PF et al. Longitudinal Assessment of Urban Form and Weight Gain in African-American Women.
American Journal of Preventive Medicine 2011; 40(4): 411-418.
Minorities Have Less Access to Sidewalks
Percent reporting lack of sidewalks
A national study of nearly 3,000 women found that American-Indian and African-American
women were more likely to report not having neighborhood sidewalks compared with
White women
King AC, Castro C, Eyler AA, et al. “Personal and Environmental Factors Associated with Physical Inactivity among Different
Racial-Ethnic Groups of US Middle-Aged and Older-Aged Women.” Health Psychology, 19(4):354-364, 2000.