Environmental
Horticulture /
Ecophysiology
Robert Savé,
Carmen Biel,
Felicidad de Herralde,
Xavier Aranda,
Vegetación urbana y riego con
recursos de agua no convencionales
Vulnerability of urban green spaces
Already in the Book of Psalms (48.2) appeared the term
"landscape" which is maintained in romantic literature of XIX
century and it refers mainly to an aesthetic, geographical and
to some extent dynamic bit concept (Naveh & Lieberman
1894).
After appeared the concept of "landscape ecology" in which
the landscape is the visual representation of an intricate
network of biodiversity (Zonneveld 1989, Sanderson & Harris
2000).
Recently, it was developed the term "Restoration of the
landscape," which addresses the need to put the landscape
back to its original level of diversity after this has undergone
some type of disturbance, which can be done in a natural
manner or with the help of techniques and systems (Harker
et al. 1999; KlopateK & Gardner 1999).
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Vulnerability of urban green spaces
Landscape representation as a biodiversity mesh
(Zonneveld 1989). Similarly than in others ecosystems,
a city is a complex ecosystem and consequently it must
be studied according ecophysiological science and tools
(Savé 2008)
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Vulnerability of urban green spaces
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Vulnerability of urban green spaces
An urban area is a space with high population density
which develops new, major and complex structures in
comparison to the areas surrounding it. Urban areas
may be cities, towns or conurbations.
In order to develop these structures and to maintain
population and its activity, metabolism of urban areas
need a lot of external sources of energy and nutrients
(water, food, materials ...) and produce heat, waste
garbage, sewage and pollution, which are some major
problems for urban areas, and the close and far areas
of it.
This metabolism develops specific microclimates, which
are attributable to the large clustering of heat
absorbent surfaces that heat up in sunlight, the
important modifications in hydrological cycle due to
drastic soil reduction and that channel rainwater into
underground ducts.
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Vulnerability of urban green spaces
This metabolism promotes major
environmental changes in the urban
areas.
From XIX century, hygienist
movement developed a new way of
life of the citizens by means of
gardens and landscape design.
This process has been increased in
the last decades in together with the
development of social economy and
social sensibility.
As a result of this process,
urbanism and landscaping have
acquired a very important role in the
quality of life of the people.
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Vulnerability of urban green spaces
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Vulnerability of urban green spaces
Barcelona is an old city placed on Mediterranean sea
coastal into Iberic Peninsula. It’s under
Mediterranean climate characteristics.
It has about 60 different types of urban parks, historical,
thematic, forest, big, small ,...) located throughout
the city.
Climatic diagram of Barcelona city
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Vulnerability of urban green spaces
Ornamental tree species in Barcelona’s parks and streets in 2007 (Àrea medi
ambient de l’Ajuntament de Barcelona))
.
Specie
Number of plants
Platanus hispanica
53126
Ulmus pumila
7468
Robionia pseudoacacia
6201
Celtis australis
17930
Saphora japonica
8636
Ligustrum lucidum
3458
Acer negundo
1769
Brachychiton populneum
5281
Populus nigra “italica”
5012
Melia azedarach
3964
Tipuana tipu
6071
Other species
36517
TOTAL
155433
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Vulnerability of urban green spaces
Characteristics of Barcelona’s green areas in 2004 (Àrea de Medi ambient de l’Ajuntament
de Barcelona))
Urban green (urban parks, gardens, trees in streets )
1040 ha
Forest green (Collserola Serra)
1795 ha
TOTAL
2835 ha
Green per person (with Collserola area)
Green per person (without Collserola area)
18 m2/person
7 m2/person
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Vulnerability of urban green spaces
The potential climate change attributable to global change, can
increase local and general temperature (IPCC, 2007). These small
changes in temperature may have great influence in atmospheric
carbon balance (Valentini et al 2000).
This increase will not be the same around the world (IPCC 2004); it
seems it will be particularly important in the Mediterranean Basin
(Pinyol et al 1998). Thus, according to the most pessimistic
predictions, temperature may increase up to 4ºC and rainfall may
have a 10 to 40% decrease (Rosenzwieg. and Tubiello, 1997).
Apart from that, Mediterranean environments, the ecosystem, are
characterized by a double stress (Terradas and Savé 1992): In
summer, low soil hydric availability, together with high vapour
pressure deficits at atmospheric level, bring inhibitions in plants
growth and different negative effects in their development (Di Castri
and Money 1973, Savé et. al 1999).
Despite the value of the different components of global change, the
really important, it’s their integral, drought.
Predictions arising from different models for generating climate
change scenarios showed as the Central American and
Mediterranean regions would be affected by drought periods half
length (4 - 6 months) and long (more than 12 months), and 3 and 8
times more frequents than at present (Sheffield and Wood 2008). 10
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Vulnerability of urban green spaces
All the organisms, the plants, must be affected by stress, but not all and always
are vulnerable to them. The most important stresses (Levitt 1980) are:
Abiotics: drought, denial, salinity, high, low, chilling and freezing temperatures, high
radiation, ozone, mineral deficiencies, etc.
Biotics: insects, fungi, bacteria, viruses, elicitors, competitivity among species.
Anthropogenic: air (O3, NOx, SO2, aerosols), water (salinity, microbiology, heavy
metals, drugs…) and soil (heavy metals, structure loss …) pollution, herbicides, acid
rain, dry deposition, tourism …
Global change causes the combination of many of them in the same space and at
the same time, which can cause synergic effects on vegetation, on crops.
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Vulnerability of urban green spaces
Factors that can act more directly on
productivity, in gardening and landscaping
are:
Temperature increase can produce an increase in ETP, in
soil respiration, in the amount of organic matter which, at the
same time, reduces soil’s capacity to act as water storage
and source for vegetation (Schultz 2000).
The increase of CO2 must increase productivity and the
efficient use of water, therefore, plants finally develop
photosynthesis regulation and productivity returns to
the original values or to inferior ones (Drake et al. 1997;
Long et al.2004).
The increase in UV radiation produces important
morphological, physiological and biochemical changes
on vegetation to try avoiding negative effects. Despite
the negative effects on growth, this stress can increase
flavonoids and some antioxidants biosynthesis (Jensen et
al. 1998).
Drought causes growth reduction but, in general, in the
Mediterranean area, this appears together with other
stresses and, consequently, the effects can be modified
by the interactions (Shaver et al.2000).
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Vulnerability of urban green spaces
Broadly speaking, other stresses are the appearance of
pests, illnesses and weeds, which can go from being mere
anecdotes to having quite a significance in crops, gardens,
etc. due to global change (Lipa, 1997, 1999).
No doubt, environmental stresses are the main cause for
productivity loss, thus current crops are reduced from 3 to 7
times with regard to their potential productivity.
Abiotic stresses and competitivity with weeds represent
9% of this reduction, illnesses 6% and insects 4%.
Essentially, all crops are seasonally or yearly affected by
drought, flooding, frezing or cold (Faust 1986).
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Vulnerability of urban green spaces
Plants have developed three
basic models to resist stress:
AVOIDANCE
TOLERANCE
ESCAPE
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Vulnerability of urban green spaces
Plant response according to the gradual development
of hydric stress (De Bradford and Hsiao 1982).
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Vulnerability of urban green spaces
The main characteristic of green plants is the
assimilation of CO2 (Cowan 1978), all the other physiological
characteristics (vacuole, cuticle, …) are secondary (Larcher
1980, 1995, 2003; Kartiens 1996 ).
Plants need to keep their stomas open in very dry
environments, consequently, they continuously lose water
(transpiration) and a continuous water flow is established
between the soil and the atmosphere (Passioura 1982,
1988, 2001).
All environmental conditions cause hydric deficits in tissues,
cause stress ...
Stress describes adverse environmental conditions for
normal growth. These conditions, particularly their
combination in a short time, can cause important
stresses to plants, to gardens.
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Vulnerability of urban green spaces
A.
Relation between stress and response in a system with no
hardening capacity.
B.
Relation between stress, its duration and the response to it in a
system capable of adapting and hardening (Schulze et al. 2005.
Lichtenthaler 1998; Savé 2009).
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Vulnerability of urban green spaces
From our point of view, with the present conditions
and the potentially future ones, the following
solutions can be considered:
1.
Adapting vegetal material to its designated location
and expected use, considering its ecophysiological
characteristics.
2.
Improving soil water storage and fertility
3.
Increasing water use efficiency by means of methods
and systems that integrate our needs as users with
vegetal material and water availability.
3.1.-
Sensors to help in agronomical decision making.
3.2.-
Regenerated water.
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Vulnerability of urban green spaces
1.- Adapting vegetal
material
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Vulnerability of urban green spaces
Relation between cuticular transpiration and leaf
perimeter/foliar area and specific foliar weight in 16
Quercus species (a= 0.05)
(Savé, Biel, De Herralde, Roberts and Evans 2003)
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Vulnerability of urban green spaces
Limitations to hardening: Effects of maximum stress
in the recovery of Quercus coccifera trees
Potential (MPa)
(Biel, De Herralde & Savé 2002)
Recovery time (min)
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Vulnerability of urban green spaces
Potential ecophysiological patters variability in Crepis triassi
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Vulnerability of urban green spaces
Could be the root system of cultured plants an important carbon
sink under global change conditions? (Savé et al. 2009)
Shoot DW (g)
Relationship between root and shoot biomass
(DW) in different species
y = 2,055x+43,16
R2 = 0,9880
n=
20000
18000
16000
14000
12000
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
Series1
Túnel Encina
Túnel Roble
Cabrils Plátanos
Invernadero Cirerer
Invernadero Noguera
Co2 Cirerer
Co2 Noguera
Vinya
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
Root DW (g)
5000
6000
7000
Taxus baccata
Chamaerops humilis
Series13
Cycas
Gingko biloba
Pinus nigra
Pi halepensis
Rosmarinus officinalis
Buxus sempervirens
Ilex aquifolium
Olea europaea
Juglans nigra
Results show that vegetation biomass is generally accumulated aboveground in relation to belowground ,
independently of species, age and agronomical practices (R2= 0.988; n= 1047; sig>0, 0001).
Consequently the main important carbon sink in crops and gardens under Mediterranean conditions is the
aerial biomass, which in general, due to agronomical practices has a short life span, because an important part of
it is removed every year . In this way agricultural practices could play an important role to improve carbon sink by roots.
Also, composting and use biomass as energy source, building materials, among others from aboveground biomass, are
interesting alternatives to regulate the carbon cycle of biomass produced from agriculture, gardening and landscaping.
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Vulnerability of urban green spaces
Barcelona’s coastal is 13 km longer, which included
beaches, commercial and sportive harbors, 2 rivers and
a drainage network of about 15 streams with a marked
Mediterranean water regime.
These characteristics promote a narrow relationship
between urban metabolism and sea water properties.
These is a fragile equilibrium among different interests
(tourism, beach uses, gardens, pollutants, water quality, harbors).
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Vulnerability of urban green spaces
Polluted marine aerosol effect on coastal vegetation
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Vulnerability of urban green spaces
The current EU yearly detergent consumption is
50 kg. per capita.
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Vulnerability of urban green spaces
Contaminated marine spray has negative foliar effects
(Diamantopoulos et al. 2001; Marull et al 1997). This photo was taken in the
month of April previous to the 1992 Barcelona Olympics.
Physiopathy detected in Barcelona’s
Olympic village during 1991
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Vulnerability of urban green spaces
This photo was taken in the month of April previous
to the 1992 Barcelona Olympics.
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Vulnerability of urban green spaces
Effects of polluted marine spray in cuticular transpiration rate
of plants, hardened or not, of Metrosideros excelsa and
Myoporum laetum (Diamantopoulos, Biel, De Herralde & Savé 2001).
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Vulnerability of urban green spaces
Pinus halepensis
Effects of
contaminated
marine spray
and ozone on
Pinus
halepensis
(Diamantopoulos, Heredia,
Sanz, Bayona, Escarre,
Biel & Savé 2002)
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Above: Percentage of affected acicular leaves of the first verticile.
Standard average and error (n = 5)
Below: Percentage of affected acicular leaves of the first verticile.
Standard average and error (n = 5)
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Vulnerability of urban green spaces
Control and reduction of pesticide’s use in parks,
gardens and landscape restorations
Another point of interest of urban green areas, is and will be
their management based on sustainability criteria and the
use of pedagogic management.
Global change could promote new pest and/or modified the
phenological behavior of old and new pests.
Thus, the criteria for integrated production, biological control
and therefore the reduction of pesticide use is the standard
commonly used in public parks of the first world.
So plant – pest relationship is the key to develop this kind of
production, control.
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Vulnerability of urban green spaces
Physiological explanation of white fly egg mortality
(Castañe and Savé 1993).
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Vulnerability of urban green spaces
Relation insect (Macrolophus caliginosus) vs
Mediterranean ruderal plants at foliar level
(Savé, Comas, García, Labarta, Alomar, Gabarra, Arnó and Biel 2008).
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Predators population level
maintenance
Vegetal species
Ecophysiological
characteristics
++++
Ononis natrix
High hydric content in
tissues
+++
Inula viscosa
Non-glandular foliar hairs,
low density of hairs and
thin cuticles
++
Cistus monspeliensis
+
Erigeron karsvinskianus
Very xeric plant
Thin cuticles, low water
content in drought, nonglandular hairs
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Vulnerability of urban green spaces
Production and water-use efficiency of Lotus
creticus and Cynodon dactylon growing in pure
stand or in competitive mixture under two levels of
irrigation (Vignolio et al 2002).
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Vulnerability of urban green spaces
Visitors, invaders…? It depends on many things, ourselves
among them (IRTA/UCDavis 2007).
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California
grasses
Mediterranean
grasses
SLW (mg.cm-2)
RWCtlp (%)
5.9±0.2
65.0±1.0
10.4±0.9
71.0±1.0
Statistical
significance
(95%)
*
*
Rh (Mpa.s.cm-2)106
TRc (mg.g-1. min-1)
0.30±0.09
6.5±0.5
1.2±0.25
4.0±0.4
*
*
35
Vulnerability of urban green spaces
2.- Improving soil
water storage
and fertility.
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36
Could be drought in our parks attibutable to rainfall
reduction, or ETP increase,...?: Evolution of rainfall, ETP and
centigrade degree /day in a temporal serie of 65 years inTorre Marimon
(Caldes de Montbui, Barcelona, Spain).(Ruiz, Crivilles i Savé. 2008)
37
Is there soil, or substrate?. Plants living in/on, but it’s very
different, among others plant water relations are very
different, hydrological cycle its absolutely modified similarly
than biological fertility.
R. Cots-Folch et al. . 2006.
Agriculture, Ecosystems and
Environment 115 88–96
38
The Spanish region with high number of mining is Catalonia,
due to the big number of quarries, which according law must
be restored. Are we restoring or making up the
landscape?.
39
Effects of root volume restriction on growth of 5 years
old Platanus hispànica (Biel et al 2007)
40
Vulnerability of urban green spaces
Once constructed, the ditches are filled with their own soil and slow
release fertilizer, in a proportion of 1/3 compost and 2/3 soil. The
slow release fertilizer composition is the same in both treatments.
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Vulnerability of urban green spaces
Treatments have increased the soil water content, which has caused a larger
growth in diameter than the previous year as well as a 19 and 28% increase in
the quality of the canopy for the forked soil and compost treatments in
relation with the control, and a 19% increment in the cubication of the aerial
parts, in compost treatments in relation to the others.
It is considered that growth has not improved more clearly because of the trees
age, which doesn’t allow to modify their growth rhythm however much the
conditions are improved.
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Vulnerability of urban green spaces
MC
70
NMC
60
MS
50
NMS
40
30
20
10
0
-5
0
5
10
15
Days
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20
25
30
M 500
Soil coverage (%)
Rhr (MPa·s·cm-2)·10-4)
Hardening by mychorizas: Effects of pluviometry in the % of soil coverage in
plants inoculated or not with VAM (Biel, Estaun and Savé 2002)
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
NM 500
M 300
NM 300
10
5
0
A
S
O N
D
J
F
M
A
M J
Month
43
J
Vulnerability of urban green spaces
Effects of soil temperature in root hydraulic resistance and respiration
(Biel,
Estaun and Savé 1996)
18
Root respiration ( m mol O 2.h-1.g PF -1)
Root hydraulic resistance (MPa.s.cm
-2
.10-4)
35
M
30
NM
25
-0.0834Tª
Rh = 29.136e
R2 = 0.9736
20
15
10
-0.0398Tª
Rh = 16.08e
R2 = 0.9781
5
M
NM
16
14
12
10
0.0427Tª
R = 4.3009e
R2 = 0.9585
8
R = 3.234e0.0497Tª
2
R = 0.9501
6
4
2
0
0
-5
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0
5
10
15
20
Temperature (ºC)
25
30
35
-5
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
Temperature (ºC)
44
Vulnerability of urban green spaces
3. Increasing efficiency
in the use of water by
means of methods
and
systems
that
integrate our needs as
users with vegetal
material and water
availability.
3.1.- Sensors to help
in agronomical
decision making.
3.2.- Regenerated
waters.
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Vulnerability of urban green spaces
Spectroradiometer
20 cm
Objective:
Evaluation of
digital images as
indicators of hydric
state (Casadesus et al 2005).
0.01m2
Soil matric potential
Reflectance
NDVI = NIR - R
NIR +R
WI =
R900
R970
0.4
0.2
0.0
400
UV
500
600
700
800
900
IR
1000
wavelength (nm)
Leaf RWC
Digital image
1m2
90º
0º
0.001m2
180º
HUE (º)
270º
Green area (%)
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Vulnerability of urban green spaces
Relation between RWC and NDVI with the hydric potential of
the substrate in to species of grass (Llobet et al. 2006).
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Vulnerability of urban green spaces
Relation between hue and green area with the hydric potential
of the substrate in two species of grass (Llobet et al. 2006).
40
100
80
80
Green area (%)
100
60
Hue (º)
Festuca
40
r = 0.94*
20
0
60
100
60
40
20
r = 0.92*
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
0
60
80
100
100
80
80
40
60
60
Green area (%)
100
60
Hue (º)
40
Soil matric potential (kPa)
Soil matric potential (kPa)
Cynodon
20
40
r = 0.43
20
0
100
40
20
r = 0.29
0
0
20
40
60
80
Soil matric potential (kPa)
100
0
20
40
60
80
100
Soil matric potential (kPa)
* Statistical significance p < 0.1
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Vulnerability of urban green spaces
Conclusions
All evaluated parameters present inferior values in Cynodón with regard to Festuca, which
indicates a different adaptation to hydric restriction, as their ecophysiological characteristics
define (Harivandi 1998, Tyer & Zeiger 2002).
RWC measures prove insensitive to changes in matric soil, which is attributable to the used
sampling and the agronomical management of the grass.
NDVI showed a similar response to the one described for RWC, which concurs with the previous
results (Peñuelas & Filella 1993). This parameter is only sensitive to values inferior to 70%
RWC. WI shows the same behaviour for the same reasons (Peñuelas et al 1993, 1995 a, b).
Colour hue and coverage, the green area, showed a significantly negative relation with soil water
tension in Festuca, whereas it seemed less insensitive in Cynodon (Casadesus et al 2005),
which can be attributed to the different sensitivity to drought of these two species (Harivandi
1998; Tyer & Zeiger 2002;Vignolio et al 2000, 2002 y 2005).
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Vulnerability of urban green spaces
Corollary
Digital photography with standard cameras can be an inexpensive, simple and
portable instrument to obtain objective and quick evaluations of the current moment
and different states of vegetation, which may be important in the management of
crops, gardens and landscape restorations.
Despite the promising results, it is necessary trying to evaluate the effects of the
different stresses occurring at the same time, interaction between species, stress /
phonology complementarity... (Casadesus et al 2005).
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Vulnerability of urban green spaces
Using digital photography techniques to detect tree
crown growth and malfunctions.
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Evaluacion y mejora de sensores, métodos y
sistemas para ser usados en agricultura de
precisión.
Relación entre NDVI (espectroradiómetro) y
porcentaje de cobertura de verde (cámara
digital),p< 0.05; n=36 (Funes, Biel & Savé, 2010).
52
Vulnerability of urban green spaces
Minimum irrigation technique applied to 2 Mediterranean shrubs
(Araujo-Alves et al. 2000)
Plant height
70
Height (cm)
60
Santolina 0%
Arbutus 20%
Santolina 20%
Arbutus 40%
Santolina 40%
50
b
a
a
b
1/1/98
ab
a
b
ab
a
b
1/3/98
a
ab
b
b
ab
a
30
10
1/11/97
a
a
40
20
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Arbutus 0%
b
ab
1/5/98
b a
a
b
1/7/98
a
a
b
1/9/98
Date
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Vulnerability of urban green spaces
Green roofs and terraces have been used mainly in
northern and central Europe, compared with
Mediterranean countries, which could be attributable
to economical aspects in the past and negative
environmental conditions in the present.
The positive effects of these vegetation are including
energy savings, a good use of rainwater and its
recovery, reduce pollution by dust, improve the urban
landscape, to mitigate the warming in the urbanized
areas increase biodiversity, regulating the temperature
of the buildings and so on.
Our work wants to investigate a vegetative cover that
fits the climate of the metropolitan area of
Barcelona, which must be:
Environmentally sustainable.
Low maintenance
needs.
Develop coverage in the different seasons
It will have aesthetically value
It will have low alergogenic capacity.
Drought resistant. Low irrigation needs.
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Vulnerability of urban green spaces
The use of regenerated water for irrigation is a good
alternative but, in order to manage it correctly, it is
necessary to consider a series of factors:
- Chemical and microbiological quality of the water.
REGENERATED
WATER
- Variability of water quality along time and source.
- Physical and chemical characteristics of the soil
- Selection of adequate species: salinity tolerant or
resistant
- Climate of the area
- Irrigation method and water management
- Adequate drainage system
Regenerated
water
Conductividad
eléctrica
Agua electrical
regenerada
conductivity
2005
2005
14
14
12
CE (dS/m)
(dS/m)
EC
12
CE (dS/m)
(dS/m)
EC
Conductividad
Eléctrica
Agua
regenerada
Regenerated
water
electrical
2006
conductivity 2006
10
10
8
6
4
2
8
6
4
2
0
25/06/2005 09/07/2005 23/07/2005 06/08/2005 20/08/2005 03/09/2005
Días mdays
uestreo
Sampling
0
03/05/06 23/05/06 12/06/06 02/07/06 22/07/06 11/08/06 31/08/06
Día muestreo days
Sampling
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Vulnerability of urban green spaces
Reference criteria to evaluate water use restrictions in agriculture
None
Ninguna
None
None
Salinity
riskde salinización
Riesgo
-1
(CEa
dS.m-1
25ªC)
(CEa
dS.m-1
25ªC)
a 25ºC
dS.m
(CEa
Riesgo de sodificación
Sodification
risk
SARp
SARp
0-3
3-6
6-12
12-20
20-40
Toxicity
risk
Riesgo de toxicidad
-1
-1
CI
CI
meq.L
meq.L-1
Clmeq.L
.. Surface
Surface irrigation
de superficie
Riego irrigation
.. Sprinkler
Sprinkler irrigation
irrigation
Riego-1-1 por aspersión
Boron
Boron mg.L
mg.L -1
Boro mg.L
-1
-1
Bicarbonate
m
Bicarbonate
m eq.L
eq.L
meq.L-1
Bicarbonato
.. Sprinkler
Sprinkler irrigation
irrigation
Riego por aspersión
<0.7
de uso
Restricciones
Use restrictions
Slight
Slight
to
a
Ligera
Slight
to
Slight
to to
moderate
moderate
moderada
moderate
Important
Importantes
Important
Important
0.7-3.0
>3.0
CE (dS.m-1 a 25ºC)
>0.7
>1.2
>1.9
>2.9
>5.0
0.7-0.2
1.2-0.3
1.9-0.5
2.9-1.3
5.0-2.9
<0.2
<0.3
<0.5
<1.3
<2.9
<4
<3
<0.7
<1.5
4-10
>3
0.7-3.0
1.5-8.5
>10
->3.0
>8.5
Ayers
Ayers and
and Wescott,
Wescott, 1985
1985 extracted
extracted from
from the
the book
book Edafología
Edafología by
by Porta
Porta et
et al.
al. 2003.
2003.
08/04/2015
56
Vulnerability of urban green spaces
RESULTS:
Percentage of green area in each species 2006
Regenerated
Green area (%)
Green area (%)
Tap
Regenerated
Tap
Apr-06
Apr-06
May-06
May-06
Jun-06
Jun-06
Jul-06
Jul-06
Aug-06
Aug-06
Sep-06
Sep-06
Mar-06
Apr-06
May-06
Jun-06
Jul-06
Aug-06
Sep-06
Jun-06
Jul-06
Aug-06
Sep-06
Green area (%)
Green area (%)
Mar-06
Mar-06
Regenerated
Regenerated
Tap
Tap
Mar-06
Mar-06
08/04/2015
Apr-06
May-06
Jun-06
Jul-06
Aug-06
Apr-06
May-06
Sep-06
57
Vulnerability of urban green spaces
RESULTS:
Trial with Mediterranean shrubs irrigated with
regenerated water
Regenerated water
08/04/2015
Tap water
58
iti
m
ria
Survival (%)
Supervivencia (%)
25
m
ar
en
a
50
Am
ris
cu
s
ar
75
0
Species
Especies
us
At mo
rip ph
le ila
x ar
ha en
H As
a l te
li m ari
r
im is
us a
c
iu
us
m
ha mar
lim itim
us
At ifo
O
rip liu
ta
le m
nt
x
h
ha
Ha u
s
li m
lim m
us
iu a
m rit
ha im
lim us
Ta
ifo
Om
liu
taar
m
ntix
hua
sfr
mic
aar
nitia
m
Ar T
us
buam
tuari
s xa
La
u n fr
va
edica
nd
o na
ul A
O
a
r
le
an b u t
a
eu L
gu us
ro ava
st une
pa nd
if d
ea ula olia o
O
le
an
a
v
eu ar
gu
ro . s
st
pa yl
ifo
v
e
es lia
a
Ph
va tr
ily
i
r.
re
sy s
a
lve
Ph a
st
ily ng
ris
r e us
a ti
an fo
R
gu lia
us
st
Sa
cu
ifo
Rus
lia
nt
scac
oSl a
u
inn
sule
ato
aca
clhin
utlu
esa
aamc
tu
haa
s
em
cyae
pacy
ripsar
suiss
s us
As
te
ph
ila
Vulnerability of urban green spaces
RESULTS:
Plant survival
Plant survival
Plant survival
00
regenerada 4 L
08/04/2015
Tap 2L
pozo
2L
pozo
pozo
4 2LL
Tap 4L
pozo 4 L 2 L
regenerada
Regenerated 2L
regenerada 2 L
Regenerated 4L
regenerada
4L
100
75
50
25
0
Especies
59
Vulnerability of urban green spaces
RESULTS:
Regenerated
08/04/2015
Tap
60
Vulnerability of urban green spaces
Arbutus unedo trunk diameter
Arbutus unedo height
25
80
60
40
Tap
Tap
20
Regenerated
Regenerated
Diameter (mm)
Height (cm)
100
20
15
10
Tap
Tap
5
0
0
27/07/05
Regenerated
Regenerated
25/09/05
24/11/05
23/01/06
24/03/06
23/05/06
22/07/06
20/09/06
27/07/05
25/09/05
24/11/05
23/01/06
Tap
Tap
Regenerated
Regenerated
23/01/06
24/03/06
Days
08/04/2015
23/05/06
22/07/06
20/09/06
Diameter (mm)
Height (cm)
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
24/11/05
22/07/06
20/09/06
Tamafricana
arix africana
trunk
diam eter
Tamarix
trunk
diameter
Tamarix africana height
25/09/05
23/05/06
Days
Days
27/07/05
24/03/06
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
27/ 07/ 05
Pozo
Tap
Regenerada
Regenerated
25/ 09/ 05
24/ 11/ 05
23/ 01/ 06
24/ 03/ 06
23/ 05/ 06
22/ 07/ 06
20/ 09/ 06
Days
61
Vulnerability of urban green spaces
Ruscus aculeatus height
Ruscus aculeatus coverage
35
1200
30
1000
25
20
15
10
Tap
5
Regenerated
Coverage (cm2)
Height (cm)
40
800
600
Regenerated
200
0
27/07/05
25/09/05
24/11/05
23/01/06
24/03/06
23/05/06
22/07/06
Tap
400
0
20/09/06
27/07/05
25/09/05
24/11/05
23/01/06
Days
250
2)
150
100
Tap
50
Regenerated
0
35000
Tap
30000
23/01/06
24/03/06
22/07/06
20/09/06
Regenerated
25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
0
27/07/05
24/11/05
Days
08/04/2015
Cobertura (cm
Height (cm)
200
25/09/05
23/05/06
Atriplex halimus Coverage
Atriplex halimus height
27/07/05
24/03/06
Days
23/05/06
22/07/06
20/09/06
-5000
25/09/05
24/11/05
23/01/06
24/03/06
23/05/06
22/07/06
20/09/06
Days
62
Vulnerability of urban green spaces
Results from soil analysis of Madrid parks irrigated
with regenerated water
Sodium
Sodium
Electrical conductivity
Electrical
conductivity
400
Na (ppm)
S.m.1)
(d (dS.m-1)
ECEC
1,0
0,5
0,0
300
200
100
0
Nov04
Apr05
Set-05
Nov04
0-20 cm
Apr05
Sep-05
Nov04
20-40 cm
0-20 cm
Sampling
depth
and and
months
Sampling
depth
months
20-40 cm
Phosphorus
Phosphorus
120
140
120
100
80
100
P (ppm)
N-NO3 (mg.Kg -1)
Apr-05 Sep-05
Sampling depth and months
Nitrogen
Nitrogen
60
40
20
0
80
60
40
20
0
Nov04
Apr05
0-20 cm
Sep-05
Nov04
Apr05
20-40 cm
Sampling
depthdepth
and months
Sampling
and months
08/04/2015
Apr-05 Sep-05 Nov04
Sep-05
Nov04
Apr05
Sep-05
Nov04
0-20 cm
Sampling
depth depth
and months
Sampling
and
Apr05
Sep-05
20-40 cm
months
63
08/04/2015
AGUA
REGENERADA
De esta manera, se ha desarrollado diferentes ensayos en la ACSA
(Agencia Catalana para la seguridad de la Salud) .
En una de ellas hojas de lechuga fueron rociados con analitos
mismo objetivo y se coloca en cámaras con distintas humedades
relativas (HR), el 33 y el 90% y se incubaron durante 48 h.
Posteriormente, las hojas se lavaron con agua Milli Q. Tanto las
hojas, y el agua de enjuague se analizaron.
La evaluación del comportamiento de los compuestos en la hoja,
muestra como los compuestos polares (tonalide …..), como se
esperaba, se encuentra principalmente en el tejido vegetal, el 99%,
mientras que sólo el 1% del importe total se recuperó en la fase
acuosa. Por otra parte, los compuestos ácidos (ácido clofíbrico es
decir, el ibuprofeno, diclofenaco), se encuentran principalmente en
la fase acuosa, que van desde 67 hasta 93% (33% HR) y 86 - 96%
(90% HR).
En conclusión, este estudio ha demostrado que la absorción
por el cultivo de microcompuestos contaminantes presentes
en el agua regenerada es factible, aunque muy improbable,ya
sea por goteo o riego por aspersión.
64
AGUA REGENERADA
The use of regenerated water taking in consideration the new
pollutants could open interesting research about:
Relationship pollutant / leaf cuticle
Relationship
pollutant
/ soil biota
El
uso de aguas
regeneradas
tomara en consideración
a nuevos contaminantes lo cual abrirá interesantes
campos de investigación:
Relación entre contaminantes y cutícula
Relación entre contaminantes y la biota del suelo
65
08/04/2015
Vulnerability of urban green spaces
Vegetation in the historical ‘Parque del Oeste’ and in Tierno Galván park
(Madrid) did not show any negative effects regarding its ornamental
quality, attributable to being irrigated with water from the EDAR La China.
08/04/2015
66
Vulnerability of urban green spaces
Conclusions
The large availability of vegetal material and the great technical development can be
highlighted as strong points of gardening and landscaping while, as weak points,
we could mention the changing taste of consumers, which can force the
introduction of new vegetal material with no time for adaptation and without enough
availability of certified quality vegetal material.
Gardening and landscaping can be considered to be exposed to global change, but
we think it is necessary to carry out more studies to determine the real degree of
vulnerability of this activity to this kind of stress.
Also, it’s absolutely necessary the joint work among designers, architects, biologist,
gardeners, to maintain some problems as potential and to avoid the real problems.
08/04/2015
67
Vulnerability of urban green spaces
Acknowledgements
When something is done, it is always necessary to express our gratitude to those who,
with either their work, moral, economic or institutional support, helped to make our
efforts shine above standards. For this reason, we would like to mention:
Jordi Morato, Jordi Comas Angelet, Núria Canyameras, Rafael Mujeriego, Miquel
Salgot, Àngel Freixo, Antonio Vestrella, José Montero, Eulàlia Serra, Cristian Morales,
Beatriz Grau, Mª. Carmen Bellido, Marc Pujol, Julian Cazaña, Marc Ferre, Toni Araño,
Romeo . . . Àrea Metropolitana de Barcelona, Ajuntament de Barcelona, CESPA,
Fundació Abertis, Fundació Territori i Paisatge, Ajuntament de Madrid; Ministerio de
Agricultura (INIA), Ministerio de Educación y Ciencia (CICYT and CDTI), Agencia de
Gestió d’Ajuts Universitaris i de Recerca (AGAUR).
08/04/2015
68
69
08/04/2015
Vulnerability of urban green spaces