World Regional Geography

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Lydia Mihelic Pulsipher • Alex Pulsipher

World Regional Geography

FIFTH EDITION

CHAPTER 4

Europe

© 2011 W. H. Freeman and Company

H OUSEKEEPING I TEMS

Any feedback on our two guest speakers from

Thursday?

Tonight there’s a lecture at 7 on sea level rise and its implications for the 21 st century in

Building 356, Room 109 (the auditorium).

Admission is free.

In the folder, you’ll find information on

International Development Week, which leads off with the keynote, “Global Water, Local Water,” next Monday from 5:30 to 7 in the Theatre.

Today, we’ll finish Latin America and start in on

Europe.

Can I see Sarah after class?

EUROPE –

POLITICAL MAP AND

PHYSIOGRAPHY

F IGURE 4.2 P IG FARMS IN R OMANIA AND THE

U NITED S TATES

P HYSICAL P ATTERNS

Europe is a region of peninsulas upon peninsulas

The entire European region is one giant peninsula extending off the Eurasian continent

One result of all of these peninsulas is that much of Europe feels the climate-moderating effect of the large bodies of water that surround it

L

ANDFORMS

The basic pattern is mountains, uplands, and lowlands, all stretching roughly west to east in wide bands

Europe’s largest mountain chain stretches west to east through the middle of the continent

The Alps are the highest and most central part of this formation

Europe lies on the westernmost extension of the Eurasian Plate

L

ANDFORMS

Extending northward from the central mountain zone is a band of low-lying hills and plateaus that is a transitional zone between the high mountains and lowlands

The lowlands of the North European Plain is the most extensive landform in Europe

The coastal zones of the North European

Plain are densely populated

L

ANDFORMS

The rivers of Europe link its interior to the surrounding seas

- The Rhine

- The Danube

The economic and environmental roles of the

Danube River basin are getting increased attention

V

EGETATION

Nearly all of Europe’s original forests are gone to make way for farmland, pasture, towns, and cities

Today, forests with very large and old trees exist only in scattered areas

The dominant vegetation is crops and pasture grass

Nonetheless, there is far less urban sprawl; cities tend to be compact and one can often see the countryside from the city itself

Siena in Tuscany. Source: http://www.revealedrome.com

/2010/10/siena-a-gem-of-a

-tuscan-city.html

C LIMATE

Europe has three main climate types: temperate midlatitude, Mediterranean, and humid continental

The temperate midlatitude climate dominates in northwestern Europe

A broad warm-water ocean current called the

North Atlantic Drift brings large amounts of warm water to the coasts of Europe

Farther to the south, the Mediterranean climate prevails (warm, dry summers and mild, rainy winters)

In eastern Europe the more extreme humid continental climate prevails

E

NVIRONMENTAL

I

SSUES

Europeans are now increasingly taking action on environmental issues at the local and global scales

Europe’s air, seas, and rivers remain some of the most polluted in the world, and there is still a long way to go to meet the European

Union’s stated environmental goals

Nonetheless, Europe is in the vanguard of sustainability theory and practice, and the

European Union encourages countries to raise their environmental and social standards and not lower them

E

UROPE

S

I

MPACT ON THE

B

IOSPHERE

This region continues to have a major impact on the biosphere through the air, water, and sea pollution it generates. However, for the most part, its per capita ecological footprint is considerably below that of North America

Europe is itself especially vulnerable to a number of the potential effects of climate change, all of which will affect agriculture and industries such as tourism and transportation. It also saw a major heat wave in

2003 that killed thousands of people

E UROPE ’ S E NERGY R ESOURCES

Europe’s main energy sources have shifted over the years from coal to petroleum and natural gas

(also nuclear power in some countries)

The 27 members of the European Union (EU27) get a large portion of their fuel supplies from

Russia

The EU27 depend on nuclear power for 30 percent of their total needs

The European Union wishes to increase its use of renewable energy in order to reduce fuel imports and thereby increase energy security, and some countries are making extraordinary strides

A IR P OLLUTION

Air pollution is particularly heavy over the North

European Plain due to the region’s heavy industry, dense transportation routes, and large populations

The highest level of air pollution is found in the former communist states of Central and North

Europe

Central Europe’s severe environmental problems developed in part because the Marxist-Leninist policies promoted by the Soviet Union and its allies emphasized industrialization at all costs and an ethic of humans dominating over nature

F RESHWATER AND S EAWATER P OLLUTION

Sources of water pollution in Europe include:

- Insufficiently treated sewage

- Chemicals and silt in the runoff from agricultural plots and residential units

- consumer packaging litter

- petroleum residues

- industrial effluent

The Baltic, Mediterranean, and Black seas are nearly landlocked bodies of water that are prone to accumulating pollution

Water exits the Mediterranean only after it has been in the sea for 80 years

T HE W IDE R EACH OF E UROPE ’ S

E NVIRONMENTAL I MPACT

Europeans consume one-fifth of the world’s imports and many of these goods have a high virtual water component

Nearly all EU countries import more virtual water than they export

This is the same with other nonrenewable resources imported from outside Europe

The environmental impacts of Europe’s virtual water consumption should be counted along with

Europe’s total impact on the biosphere

E UROPEAN L EADERSHIP IN R ESPONSE TO

G LOBAL C LIMATE C HANGE

Europe leads the world in response to global climate change

Europe has been more willing than any other region to act on climate change, largely because it recognizes the economic sense in doing so

Recent research suggests doing nothing about global warming would shrink the EU’s GDP by

20 percent

E UROPEAN L EADERSHIP IN R ESPONSE TO

G LOBAL C LIMATE C HANGE

Europe’s increasing concern about global warming may also be influenced by public alarm at recent abnormal weather

The summer of 2003 broke all high-temperature records for Europe

In 2002 and 2006, rainfall and snowfall in

Central Europe reached record levels

In the spring of 2006, rivers flooded for weeks

P ROGRESS IN G REEN B EHAVIOR

Europeans use large amounts of resources and contribute about one-quarter of the world’s greenhouse gas emissions

One European resident averages only one-half the energy consumption of the average North

American resident

These energy-saving practices are related in part to the high population densities and social customs of the region, but also to widespread explicit support for ecological principles

Green (environmentally activist) political parties influence national policies in all European countries

P ROGRESS IN G REEN B UILDING

There is no generally accepted definition of green building

In the European Union, green building refers to the all-around sustainability of a building design

Thus far Europe has outpaced the United States in green building through incorporation of renewable energy technologies and passivehaus techniques

C HANGES IN T RANSPORTATION

Europeans have long favored fast rail networks for both passengers and cargo rather than private cars, trucks, and multilane highways

Worry about the relationship between CO

2 emissions and climate change has created a noticeable trend toward less energy-efficient but more flexible motorized road transport

Now rising fuel costs and CO

2 emissions are increasingly being considered in the design of multimodal transport that links high-speed rail to road, air, and water transport

Parts of Europe have a strong cycling culture

Source : Google Images

H UMAN P ATTERNS O VER T IME

Over the last 500 years, Europe has profoundly influenced how the world trades, fights, thinks, and governs itself

Attempts to explain this influence are wideranging

- One argument is that Europeans are somehow a superior breed of humans – popular in the 19 th century, but now discredited

- Another is that Europe’s many bays, peninsulas, and navigable rivers have promoted commerce to a greater extent there than elsewhere

- Some, such as geographers Jared Diamond

(Guns, Germs, and Steel), argue that Europeans were just in the right place in the right time

S OURCES OF E UROPEAN C ULTURE

Starting about 10,000 years ago, the practice of agriculture and animal husbandry gradually spread into Europe from Southwest and Central

Asia

Mining, metalworking, and mathematics also came to Europe from these places and from North

Africa

Economic innovations came from Muslim traders and bankers

The Chinese contributed gunpowder and paper

All of these innovations opened the way for a wider range of economic activity (most notably trade) in Europe

S OURCES OF E UROPEAN C ULTURE

The first European civilizations were ancient

Greece (800 to 86 B .

C .

E .) and Rome (100 B .

C .

E . to

450 C .

E .)

Both were located in southern Europe

European traditions of science, art, and literature were heavily based on Greek ideas, which were themselves derived from yet earlier Egyptian and

Southwest Asian sources

S OURCES OF E UROPEAN C ULTURE

The Romans, after first borrowing heavily from Greek culture, also left important legacies in Europe

Many Europeans today speak Romance languages which are largely derived from Latin, the language of the Roman Empire

Rome was the origin of European laws that determine how individuals own, buy, and sell land

These laws have been spread throughout the world by

Europeans

Roman practices used in colonizing new lands also shaped much of Europe

S OURCES OF E UROPEAN C ULTURE

The influence of Islamic civilization on Europe is often overlooked

During a period known as the Dark Ages, pre-

Muslim and then Muslim scholars preserved learning from Rome and Greece and added new findings in mathematics and other disciplines

The Arabs, Persians, and Turks all brought new technologies, food crops, architectural principles, and textiles to Europe during the Ottoman

Empire

T HE I NEQUALITIES OF F EUDALISM

As the Roman Empire declined, a social system known as feudalism evolved during the medieval period

This system originated from the need to defend rural areas against local bandits and raiders

The objective of feudalism was to have a sufficient number of heavily armed, professional fighting men, or knights, to defend a much larger group of serfs, who were legally bound to live on and cultivate plots of land for the knights

T HE I NEQUALITIES OF F EUDALISM

Over time these knights became a wealthy class called the nobility. Some of the nobility had more prestige and power than others

Some nobles gained so much power that they became centralized rulers (kings or monarchs).

Their domains took the form of nation-states or empires

Most serfs lived in poverty outside castle walls, and much like slaves, were legally barred from leaving the lands they cultivated for their protectors

Wars were common and castles provided bulwark of protection as well as outposts for securing newly conquered territories

R OLE OF U RBANIZATION IN THE

T RANSFORMATION OF E UROPE

While rural life followed established feudal patterns, new political and economic institutions were developing in Europe’s towns and cities

Thick walls provided defense against raiders, and commerce and crafts supplied livelihoods

Located along trade routes, Europe’s urban areas were exposed to new ideas, technologies, and institutions. They also developed a measure of political autonomy and served as a refuge for escaped serfs

Some institutions provided the foundations for

Europe’s modern economy

R OLE OF U RBANIZATION IN THE

T RANSFORMATION OF E UROPE

Over time, Europe’s urban areas established a pace of social and technological change that left the feudal rural areas far behind

A related outgrowth of urban Europe was a philosophy known as humanism, which emphasized the dignity and worth of the individual regardless of wealth or social status

The liberating influences of European urban life transformed the practice of religion

Ideas spread faster with the invention of the

European version of the printing press, which enabled widespread literacy

E UROPEAN C OLONIALISM :

A N A CCELERATION OF G LOBALIZATION

Increased commerce and cultural exchange began a period of globalization that persists today

Mercantilism: a strategy for increasing a country’s power and wealth by acquiring colonies and managing all aspects of their production, transport, and trade

Mercantilism supported the Industrial

Revolution in Europe. The development of

Europe was literally underwritten by the exploitation of the colonies.

E UROPEAN C OLONIALISM :

A N A CCELERATION OF G LOBALIZATION

By the twentieth century, European colonial systems had strongly influenced nearly every part of the world

The overseas empires of England, the

Netherlands, and eventually France were the beginnings of the modern global economy

T HE I NDUSTRIAL R EVOLUTION

Britain developed a small but growing trading empire in the Caribbean, North America, and

South Asia

This provided Britain with access to a wide range of raw materials

Sugar, produced by British colonies in the

Caribbean, was an especially important trade crop

By the late eighteenth century, Britain was introducing mechanization into its industries

U RBANIZATION AND D EMOCRATIZATION

Industrialization led to massive growth in urban areas in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries

Extremely low living standards in Europe’s cities created tremendous pressures for change in the political order

Radical movements – such as socialism and anarchism – grew amongst the working classes

After lengthy struggles, democracy was expanded to Europe’s huge and growing working class

In addition, efforts were made to unify pseudoentities such as Italy and Germany that were still divided into tiny principalities

U RBANIZATION AND D EMOCRATIZATION

In 1789, the French Revolution led to the first major inclusion of common people in the political process in Europe

The democratic expansion created by the French

Revolution ultimately proved short-lived as elitedominated governments soon regained control in

France

Nevertheless, the French Revolution provided crucial inspiration to later urban democratic political movements in many parts of the world

T HE I MPACT OF C OMMUNISM

Popular discontent erupted periodically in the form of new revolutionary political movements

Karl Marx framed the mounting social unrest in

Europe’s cities as a struggle between socioeconomic classes

Marx’s ideas inspired the creation of a revolutionary communist state in 1917

P OPULAR D EMOCRACY AND N ATIONALISM

Political movements among workers were more successful at expanding democracy

Innumerable struggles between labor and the authorities continued until eventually workers gained the right to unionize

The development of democracy was also linked to the idea of nationalism, or allegiance to the state

The creation of unified nation-states, such as

France, often led to the suppression of minorities, such as the Bretons, a Celtic-speaking people living in Brittany

D EMOCRACY AND THE W ELFARE S TATE

Public pressure for improved living standards moved most European governments toward becoming welfare states, partly to avoid more revolutionary outcomes

In a welfare state governments accept responsibility for the well-being of their people, guaranteeing basic necessities

All such states – even the best, such as in

Scandinavian countries – have seen some erosion in recent years because of fiscal constraints and ideological shifts

T WO W ORLD W ARS AND T HEIR

A FTERMATH

Between 1914 and 1945, two horribly destructive world wars left Europe in ruins

At least 20 million people died in World War I

(1914–1918) and 70 million in World War II

(1939–1945)

During World War II, Germany’s Nazi government killed 15 million civilians

Eleven million civilians died at the hands of the

Nazis during the Holocaust, a massive execution of 6 million Jews and 5 million Roma (Gypsies)

T WO W ORLD W ARS AND T HEIR

A FTERMATH

After World War II ended in 1945, Germany was divided into two parts, East Germany and West Germany

The line between East Germany and West

Germany was part of what was called the

iron curtain, a long, fortified border zone that separated western Europe from eastern

Europe

The eastern part of Europe was under Soviet domination, and west was largely subordinate to the U.S.

T HE C OLD W AR

The division of Europe created a period of conflict between the United States and the Soviet Union known as the Cold War, which lasted from 1945 to 1991

The central issue was the competition between capitalism and communism

It was global conflict and brought the world on more than one occasion to the brink of nuclear war

D ECOLONIZATION , D EMOCRATIZATION ,

AND C ONFLICT IN M ODERN E UROPE

By the 1960s, most former European colonies had gained independence

Despite democracy’s long history in Europe, it nearly disappeared during the two world wars

Then post-war western Europe made remarkable progress in reorganizing itself around democratic principles and humanitarian ideals

C URRENT G EOGRAPHIC I SSUES

Europe today is in a state of transition as a result of two major changes that occurred during the 1990s:

The demise of the Soviet Union

The rise of the European Union

T HE E UROPEAN U NION :

A R ISING S UPERPOWER

The original plan after the trauma of World War

II was simply to work toward a level of economic and social integration that would make possible the free flow of goods and people across national borders

Some Europeans believe that the European

Union should become a global counterforce to the

United States in political and military affairs

S TEPS IN C REATING THE E UROPEAN

U NION

The first major step in achieving economic unity took place in 1958

Belgium, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, France,

Italy, and West Germany formed the European

Economic Community (EEC)

In 1992, the concept of the EEC was expanded to that of the European Union, which is concerned with more than just economic policy

S TEPS IN C REATING THE E UROPEAN

U NION

A united Germany facilitated the further expansion of the European Union into the former communist countries of Central Europe in 2004, then into southeast Europe when Romania and

Bulgaria joined in 2007

Membership in the European Union became especially attractive to countries in Central

Europe after the demise of the Soviet Union

S TEPS IN C REATING THE E UROPEAN U NION

Standards for EU membership:

- A country must achieve political stability and have a democratically elected government

- Each country has to adjust its constitution to EU standards

- Each must also have a functioning market economy that is open to investment by foreignowned companies and that has well-controlled banks

- Finally, farms and industries must comply with strict regulations governing the finest details of their products and the health of environments

S TEPS IN C REATING THE E UROPEAN

U NION

Switzerland, Norway, and Iceland have chosen not to join the European Union

These three countries have long treasured their neutral role in world politics

During the 2008–2009 recession, Iceland began discussions to enter the European Union, but was not immediately welcomed because of its financial troubles. These have since been resolved

Turkey is the next most likely candidate to join the European Union

EU G OVERNING I NSTITUTIONS

The European Union has one executive branch and two legislative bodies

The European Commission acts like an executive branch of government

Each of the 27 member states gets one commissioner, who is appointed for a 5-year term

EU G OVERNING I NSTITUTIONS

The European Parliament is directly elected by

EU citizens, with each country electing a proportion of seats based on its population

The Parliament elects the president of the

European Commission, who serves for 2½ years as a head of state and head of foreign policy

Laws must be passed in Parliament by 55 percent of the member states

EU G OVERNING I NSTITUTIONS

The Council of the European Union is similar to the U.S. Senate in that it is the more powerful of the two legislative bodies

Its members are not elected but consist of one minister of government from each EU country

Minister assigned to attend depends on the agenda: foreign affairs, agriculture, industry, the environment, etc.

The Council of the European Union acts with

Parliament to enact legislation

E CONOMIC I NTEGRATION AND

A C OMMON C URRENCY

European national economies were joined into a common market

Companies in any EU country now have access to a much larger market and the potential for larger profits through economies of scale

The EU economy now encompasses close to 492 million people

Collectively, the EU countries are wealthy; their joint economy was almost $15 trillion in 2008

E CONOMIC I NTEGRATION AND A C OMMON

C URRENCY

The official currency of the European Union is the euro (€)

Sixteen EU countries now use the euro

Countries that use the euro have a greater voice in the creation of EU economic policies

Depending on global financial conditions, either the euro or the U.S. dollar is the preferred currency of international trade and finance

T HE E UROPEAN U NION AND

G LOBALIZATION

The European Union is pursuing a number of strategies designed to ensure that it continues to be economically competitive

A primary focus is on keeping exports a central component of national economies

One strategy is to relocate factories from the wealthiest EU countries to the relatively poorer

Other strategies include holding down domestic wages and emphasizing the quality of European exports

NATO AND THE R ISE OF THE E UROPEAN

U NION AS A G LOBAL P EACEMAKER

A new role for the European Union as a global peacemaker and peacekeeper is developing through the North Atlantic Treaty Organization

(NATO)

NATO originally included the United States,

Canada, the countries of western Europe, and

Turkey; it now includes almost all the EU countries as well

With the United States preoccupied with Iraq,

NATO assumed more of a role as a global peacekeeper

F OOD P RODUCTION AND

THE E UROPEAN U NION

Europeans prefer food from European farms to imported food

They pay more for food than do people in the

United States

Most food is now produced on large mechanized farms that are efficient

Romania has over one-quarter of the farms in the

European Union

T HE C OMMON A GRICULTURAL P ROGRAM

(CAP)

The European Union established the Common

Agricultural Program (CAP), meant to guarantee secure and safe food supplies at affordable prices

The CAP aids farmers by placing tariffs on imported agricultural goods and by giving subsidies (payments to farmers) to underwrite their costs of production, this putting non-

European farmers at a disadvantage

G ROWTH OF C ORPORATE A GRICULTURE

AND F OOD M ARKETING

As small family farms disappear, the trend is toward consolidating smaller farms into larger, more profitable operations

These farms tend to employ very few laborers and use more machinery and chemical inputs

The move toward corporate agriculture is strongest in Central Europe

E UROPE ’ S G ROWING S ERVICE E CONOMIES

As industrial jobs have declined across the region, most Europeans have found jobs in the service economy

Services such as the provision of health care, education, finance, tourism, and information technology are now the engine of Europe’s integrated economy

A major component of Europe’s service economy is tourism

E UROPE ’ S G ROWING S ERVICE E CONOMIES

Europe is the most popular tourist destination in the world

One job in eight in the European Union is related to tourism

Tourism generates 13.5 percent of the EU’s gross domestic product

Service occupations increasingly involve the use of technology

Europe leads the world in cell phone use

P OPULATION D ISTRIBUTION AND

U RBANIZATION

There are currently about 525 million Europeans

492 million live within the European Union

Europe is one of the more densely occupied regions on earth

Most of this population now lives in cities

These cities are the focus of the modern

European economy

However, there is a healthy and viable rural culture

P OPULATION D ISTRIBUTION AND

U RBANIZATION

In West, North, and South Europe, more than 75 percent of the population lives in urban areas

Even in Central Europe, the least urbanized part of the region, around 70 percent of people live in cities

Nearly all the cities in Europe have expanded around their perimeters in concentric circles of apartment blocks

Land is scarce and expensive in Europe, so only a small percentage of Europeans live in singlefamily homes

E UROPE ’ S A GING P OPULATION

Europe’s population is aging as families are choosing to have fewer children and life expectancies are increasing

Life expectancies now range close to 80 years in

North, West, and South Europe

Those 14 years and under declined from 27 percent to 15 percent, while those over 65 increased from 9 percent to 16 percent between

1960 and 2009

Overall, Europe is now close to a negative rate of natural increase

E UROPE ’ S A GING P OPULATION

By 2000, twenty-five percent of Europeans were choosing to have no children at all

The reasons for these trends are complex

More and more women want professional careers

25 percent of Germans are choosing to remain unmarried well into their thirties

Governments also make few provisions for working mothers beyond paid maternity leave

I MMIGRATION AND M IGRATION :

N EEDS AND F EARS

Until the mid-1950s, the net flow of migrants was out of Europe

By the 1990s the net flow was into Europe

In the 1990s, most of the European Union implemented the Schengen Accord, an agreement that allows free movement of people and goods across common borders

The accord has facilitated trade, employment, tourism, and most controversially migration

A TTITUDES T OWARD I NTERNAL AND

I NTERNATIONAL M IGRANTS AND C ITIZENSHIP

Europeans have ambivalent attitudes toward migrants

The internal flow of migration is mostly from

Central Europe into North, West, and South

Europe

These Central European migrants are mostly treated fairly, although prejudices against the supposed backwardness of Central Europe are still evident

A TTITUDES T OWARD I NTERNAL AND

I NTERNATIONAL M IGRANTS AND C ITIZENSHIP

Immigrants from outside Europe, so-called international immigrants, meet with varying acceptance

International immigrants often come legally and illegally from Europe’s former colonies and protectorates across the globe

Many Turks and North Africans come legally as guest workers who are expected to stay for only a few years

A TTITUDES T OWARD I NTERNAL AND

I NTERNATIONAL M IGRANTS AND C ITIZENSHIP

Central and South Europe are the least tolerant of new immigrants

North and West Europe, with higher incomes and generally more stable economies, are the most tolerant

Cultural issues also influence attitudes toward immigrants

A TTITUDES T OWARD I NTERNAL AND

I NTERNATIONAL M IGRANTS AND C ITIZENSHIP

Across Europe, anti-immigration views, especially toward non-Europeans, are becoming more common

Mainstream politicians increasingly support stricter controls

In response, the European Union is increasing its efforts to curb illegal immigration from outside

Europe while at the same time helping EU citizens to be more tolerant

A TTITUDES T OWARD I NTERNAL AND

I NTERNATIONAL M IGRANTS AND C ITIZENSHIP

Anti-foreigner sentiment has been a hindrance to acquiring citizenship across Europe

In 2004, more than 650,000 became citizens of an

EU country; the largest numbers were in

Germany, France, and the UK

Citizenship usually requires an extended period of legal residency, evidence of a good work record, and proficiency in the country’s main language

R ULES FOR A SSIMILATION :

M USLIMS IN E UROPE

In Europe, culture plays a larger role in defining differences between people than race and skin color

Assimilation in Europe usually means giving up the home culture and adopting the ways of the new country

Muslims, presently the focus of assimilation issues in the European Union, have lived in

Europe in small pockets for well over 1000 years

R ULES FOR A SSIMILATION :

M USLIMS IN E UROPE

Muslims have largely assimilated thoroughly to, and identify with, their home countries

Some have clung to traditional dress, gender roles, and religious values, while others have accepted and practice European culture

There has been significant controversy in France over the banning of the wearing of chadors in public places

There has also been targeted acts of violence against immigrants

C HANGING G ENDER R OLES

Gender roles in Europe have changed significantly from the days when most women married young and worked in the home or on the family farm

Increasing numbers of European women are working outside the home

Nevertheless, European public opinion among both women and men largely holds that women are less able than men to perform the types of work typically done by men

C HANGING G ENDER R OLES

Male advantages have a stronger hold in Central and South Europe today than they do in West and North Europe

Working women usually face what is called a

double day: they are expected to do most of the domestic work in the evening in addition to their job outside the home during the day

Many EU policies encourage gender equality

C HANGING G ENDER R OLES

Managers in the EU bureaucracy are increasingly female

Well over half the university graduates in Europe are now women

However, the political influence and economic wellbeing of European women lag behind those of

European men

In most European national parliaments, women make up less than a third of elected representatives

Although change is clearly underway in the European

Union, women generally serve only in the lower ranks of government

C HANGING G ENDER R OLES

Because women are largely absent from policymaking positions, their progress has been slow on many fronts

In 2006, female unemployment was higher than male unemployment in all but a few countries

Throughout the European Union, women are paid less than men for equal work

S OCIAL W ELFARE S YSTEMS

AND T HEIR O UTCOMES

In nearly all European countries, tax-supported systems of social welfare or social protection (the

EU term) provide all citizens with basic needs

Europeans generally pay much higher taxes than

North Americans, and in return they expect more in services

The European Union has more doctors and hospital beds per citizen and better outcomes than the United States in terms of life expectancy and infant mortality

S OCIAL W ELFARE S YSTEMS

AND T HEIR O UTCOMES

Europeans do not agree on the goals of these welfare systems

Some argue that Europe can no longer afford high taxes if it is to remain competitive in the global market

Others maintain that Europe’s economic success and high standards of living are the direct result of the social contract

The debate has been resolved differently in different parts of Europe

S OCIAL W ELFARE S YSTEMS

AND T HEIR O UTCOMES

European welfare systems can be classified into four basic categories:

- Social democratic welfare systems

- Conservative and modest welfare systems

- Rudimentary welfare systems

- Post-communist welfare systems

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