Research Methods in Psychology
(Pp 45-59)
Observations
Can be used in both experimental and
nonexperimental research; can be used
quantitatively or qualitatively
Types of Observations
• Covert observations are when the researcher pretends to be an
ordinary member of the group and observes in secret. Though
participant expectancy is less of a problem, ethical dilemmas occur
with the deception.
• Overt observations are when the researcher tells the group he or
she is conducting research (i.e. they know they are being observed);
increases participant expectancy which may alter the participants
natural behavior (Hawthorne effect).
Participant Observations
• Researcher blends in with the natural
environment
• Have high ecological validity
• May be covert or overt
• If covert, reliability and validity increase
but ethics is a concern
• If overt, ethical dilemmas are reduced but
participant expectancy may increase
Nonparticipant Observations
• Researcher does not blend in with the
natural environment
• May be covert or overt
• If covert, reliability and validity increase
but ethics is a concern
• If overt, ethical dilemmas are reduced but
participant expectancy may increase
Naturalistic Observations
• May have high ecological validity
• Ethnographies document group cultural practices
• Detailed accounts of behavior possible often kept
through diaries
• May be covert or overt
• If covert, reliability and validity increase but ethics is a
concern
• If overt, ethical dilemmas are reduced but participant
expectancy may increase
Setting Up Observations
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Determine goal of observation
Learn about topic (ie, addiction)
Choose a research site
Decide on researcher role
Gain access to participants
Carrying Out An Observation
• If overt, build and maintain rapport with participants
• Collect quality data through rigorous notes; collect thick
descriptions (extremely detailed accounts of the setting
and context as well as what happened)
• Focus on what is important for the study
• Conduct interviews with key participants
• Check interpretations with other researchers
• Debrief participants
Analyzing Data
Grid method
• Controls experimenter bias
• Allows use of descriptive statistics
Inductive Methods
As with interviews, inductive methods (such as
grounded theory) are the best choice for analyzing
qualitative observations.
Researchers constantly code data into categories until a
point is reached when no new themes emerge.
Pros and Cons of Observation Research
Pros:
• It is valuable to see how people behave in a natural
setting and an observation provides very detailed
qualitative information which can be used as a starting
point for further, more controlled research.
• It can be used when other methods might be unethical.
Cons:
• The presence of observers could influence the behaviour
of those being observed, and it is difficult to control
extraneous variables.
• It is difficult for another psychologist to replicate the
observation (inter-rater reliability)
• Because there are so many variables which could affect
behaviour it is not possible to draw conclusions about
cause and effect
DVD
(Qualitative Research: Methods in the Social Sciences)